Effect of Antiphospholipid Antibodies on β2Glycoprotein I-Phospholipid Interaction

PROBLEM: β₂ glycoprotein I (β₂GPI) physiologically binds to negatively charged phospholipids (PLs) and is a natural regulator of the coagulation cascade. Thrombotic clinical complications and recurrent fetal loss associated with autoimmune antiphospholipid (aPL) antibodies are thought to be related to their binding to β₂GPI-PL complex and interference with the physiological function of β₂GPI. METHOD OF STUDY: To investigate the effect of aPL on β₂GPI-PL interaction, we studied the binding of biotinylated β₂GPI to cardiolipin (CL) by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in the presence and absence of purified aPL immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies. RESULTS: Adding five different aPL IgG antibodies with different levels of aPL activity isolated from the sera of five patients with aPL-associated recurrent fetal death greatly increased the binding of biotinylated β₂GPI to CL-coated plates. The optical densities (ODs) were 0.635, 0.890, and 1.265 in the presence of three aPL IgG antibodies, compared to 0.425 in the absence of aPL IgG. In contrast, normal human IgG had no enhancing effect. The OD was 0.480 and 0.425, respectively. The enhancement of β₂GPI binding to CL by aPL IgG correlated with the titers of aPL antibodies. The use of phosphate-buffered saline with increasing salt concentrations as a washing buffer for the ELISA resulted in more stable binding of β₂GPI to PL in the presence of aPL IgG. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that the binding of autoimmune aPL antibodies to β₂GPI-PL complex results in abnormally tighter interaction between β₂GPI and PLs, which may lead to physiological dysfunction of β₂GPI as a regulator of coagulation.     

Early onset of autoimmunity in MRL/++ mice following immunization with beta 2 glycoprotein I.

Antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) are associated with thrombosis, thrombocytopenia and recurrent fetal loss in humans and in some animal models. Immunization with beta 2 glycoprotein I (beta 2GPI) induced aPL production in normal rabbits and mice. However, the association of these antibodies with disease manifestations remains controversial. To determine whether induction of aPL by beta 2GPI immunization in an autoimmune strain of mice (MRL/++) would result in acceleration of clinical and serological autoimmune disease manifestations, three groups of 8-week-old female mice were studied. One group was immunized with beta 2GPI, and one with ovalbumin (OVA); the third was not immunized. After two booster injections, sera were analysed for the presence of anticardiolipin (aCL) and anti-DNA by ELISA and anti-nuclear antibody (ANA) by immunofluorescence. Mice were studied for thrombocytopenia, proteinuria, fecundity rates, litter sizes and the development of central nervous system dysfunction. Elevated levels of aCL, anti-DNA and ANA were detected in all beta 2GPI-immunized, in three OVA-immunized, and in none of the unimmunized mice. The anti-DNA antibodies were inhibited by CL micelles, suggesting cross-reactivity between aCL and anti-DNA. Platelet counts, fecundity rates and litter size were reduced in beta 2GPI-immunized but not in OVA-immunized or unimmunized mice. None of the mice developed neurological dysfunction or significant proteinuria over a 10-week period post-immunization. These findings suggest that beta 2GPI immunization induces aPL in MRL/++ mice associated with accelerated autoimmune manifestations resembling the antiphospholipid syndrome.     

Immunologic characterization and functional properties of murine antibodies raised against deleted mutants of human beta 2-glycoprotein I

beta 2-Glycoprotein I (beta 2GPI) is a 50 kDa molecule proposed as a principal target of 'autoimmune' antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). We have used deleted mutants (DM) representing different domains of beta 2GPI (I-IV, IV-V and V) for immunization of naive mice and studied the characteristics of the respective murine IgG preparations in comparison with affinity-purified IgG from two patients with primary antiphospholipid syndrome. Immunization with beta 2GPI and with the DM produced anti-beta 2GPI antibodies, part of which reacted with negatively charged phospholipids (PL), whereas reactivity with cardiolipin was evident only in the IgG from mice immunized with beta 2GPI. These results are consistent with the presumption that aPL are induced following the in vivo association of beta 2GPI (used for immunization) with resident negatively charged PL. Accordingly, DM which either lack the PL binding site or aPL attachment locus did not elicit, upon immunization, antibodies reactive with PL. Further, murine anti-beta 2GPI IgG and human 'autoimmune' aPL were similar, albeit not identical, in terms of DM requirement for PL binding and charge dependency. Murine antibodies and human aPL, regardless of their binding characteristics, were found to bind significantly to platelets upon their activation with thrombin and to promote platelet activation. The results of the current study emphasize the dissimilarities between human 'autoimmune' aPL and murine anti-beta 2GPI. Thus, anti-beta 2GPI antibodies to different DM as well as human aPL are capable of binding and activating human platelets provided beta 2GPI is present.      

IgG accumulates in inhibitory hippocampal neurons of experimental antiphospholipid syndrome

Mice immunized with β₂-glycoprotein I (β₂GPI) are an experimental model of the antiphospholipid syndrome (eAPS) displaying elevated titers of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL). We presently studied whether the behavioral hyperactivity in eAPS mice is associated with in vivo binding and accumulation of IgG in the brain. At 6 weeks post immunization eAPS mice had significantly higher levels of aPL (1.32 ± 0.28 and 0.02 ± 0.01 AU, p < 0.001 by t-test) compared to adjuvant immunized controls, as measured by ELISA. Significant hyperactivity in a staircase test in the eAPS mice compared to controls was found in stair-climbing (18.4 ± 0.9 and 12.0 ± 1.7, respectively) and rearing measures (23.5 ± 2.1 and 12.5 ± 1.9, p < 0.01 by t-test). Immunofluorescence staining in eAPS mice revealed significant in vivo accumulation of IgG in cortical and hippocampal neurons which was not seen in controls. Staining for IgG was markedly intense in inhibitory interneurons co-stained for GAD67 in the hippocampus of eAPS mice. The integrity of the blood brain barrier (BBB) evaluated by injection of Evans blue (EB) was impaired in eAPS and adjuvant immunized mice compared to naïve mice. Electrophysiological recordings in hippocampal brain slices showed altered response to paired pulse stimulation as well as dysregulation of carbachol-induced γ- oscillations in eAPS mice compared to control. Penetration into the brain and direct interaction of aPL with inhibitory interneurons in the hippocampus may explain the hyperactive behavior of the eAPS mice. A direct role of aPL in causing CNS dysfunction points to these antibodies as an important therapeutic target in APS.     

Antibodies to age‐β2glycoprotein I in patients with anti‐phospholipid antibody syndrome

Anti‐phospholipid antibody syndrome (APS) is a systemic autoimmune disease characterized clinically by arterial and/or venous thromboses, recurrent abortions or fetal loss and serologically by the presence of ‘anti‐phospholipid antibodies’ (aPL). The main target antigen of the antibodies is β₂glycoprotein I (β₂GPI). Post‐translational oxidative modifications of the protein have been widely described. In this study we aimed to analyse sera reactivity to glucose‐modified β₂GPI (G‐β₂GPI). Sera collected from 43 patients with APS [15 primary APS (PAPS) and 28 APS associated with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) (SAPS)], 30 with SLE, 30 with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and 40 healthy subjects were analysed by an enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) using a G‐β₂GPI. Nine of 15 consecutive PAPS out‐patients (60%) and 16 of 28 SAPS (57.1%) showed serum antibodies [immunoglobulin (Ig)G class] against G‐β₂GPI (anti‐G‐β₂GPI) by ELISA. The occurrence of anti‐G‐β₂GPI was significantly higher in APS patients compared to patients suffering from SLE. No RA patients or control healthy subjects resulted positive for anti‐G‐β₂GPI. Of note, aG‐β₂GPI prompted to identify some APS patients (four PAPS and seven SAPS), who were negative in the classical anti‐β₂GPI test. Moreover, in APS patients, anti‐G‐β₂GPI titre was associated significantly with venous thrombosis and seizure in APS patients. This study demonstrates that G‐β₂GPI is a target antigen of humoral immune response in patients with APS, suggesting that β₂GPI glycation products may contain additional epitopes for anti‐β₂GPI reactivity. Searching for these antibodies may be useful for evaluating the risk of clinical manifestations.     

Anti-phospholipid induced murine fetal loss: novel protective effect of a peptide targeting the β2 glycoprotein I phospholipid-binding site. Implications for human fetal loss

β2 glycoprotein I (β2GPI)-dependent anti-phospholipid antibodies (aPL) induce thrombosis and affect pregnancy. The CMV-derived synthetic peptide TIFI mimics the PL-binding site of β2GPI and inhibits β2GPI cell-binding in vitro and aPL-mediated thrombosis in vivo. Here we investigated the effect of TIFI on aPL-induced fetal loss in mice. TIFI inhibitory effect on in vitro aPL binding to human trophoblasts was evaluated by indirect immunofluorescence and ELISA. TIFI effect on aPL-induced fetal loss was investigated in pregnant C57BL/6 mice treated with aPL or normal IgG (NHS). Placenta/fetus weight and histology and RNA expression were analyzed. TIFI, but not the control peptide VITT, displayed a dose-dependent inhibition of aPL binding to trophoblasts in vitro. Injection of low doses of aPL at day 0 of pregnancy caused growth retardation and increased fetal loss rate, both significantly reduced by TIFI but not VITT. Consistent with observations in humans, histological analysis showed no evidence of inflammation in this model, as confirmed by the absence of an inflammatory signature in gene expression analysis, which in turn revealed a TIFI-dependent modulation of molecules involved in differentiation and development processes. These findings support the non-inflammatory pathogenic role of aPL and suggest innovative therapeutic approaches to aPL-dependent fetal loss.     

Requirement for dendritic cells in the establishment of anti-phospholipid antibodies

Objective: The cross-presentation of cell-associated autoantigens contributes to systemic autoimmune diseases, including systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE). Little is known about the regulation of the immune response against soluble autoantigens targeted in these diseases.

Methods: We immunized the offspring of New Zealand Black and New Zealand White mice (NZB × NZW F₁) with syngeneic dendritic cells (DC) that had macropinocytosed β2-glycoprotein 1 (β₂GPI) during propagation in normal mouse serum or that had phagocytosed apoptotic thymocytes with syngeneic (murine) or xenogeneic (bovine) β₂GPI, which was associated to plasma membrane of the cells. Mice were in parallel immunized with apoptotic thymocytes that had associated the β₂GPI to their membranes in the absence of DC. The development of anti-β₂GPI antibodies and clinical features were monitored.

Results. Apoptotic cells alone, opsonized with β₂GPI, failed to induce anti-β₂GPI autoantibodies or clinical disease. In contrast, autoimmunity developed in the presence of DC. Furthermore, the syngeneic β₂GPI was a more effective antigen than the xenogeneic protein in re-boosted animals.

Conclusions. DC effectively initiate in NZB × NZW F₁ mice self-sustaining autoimmunity against the β₂GPI, either associated to apoptotic cells or macropinocytosed from the serum.     

T cells demonstrate a Th1-biased response to native β2-glycoprotein I in a murine model of anti-phospholipid antibody induction

Anti-phospholipid syndrome (APS) is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the presence of autoantibody (AAb) to phospholipid (PL)-binding proteins, such as β2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI), and clinical manifestations including thrombosis and/or recurrent pregnancy loss. β2GPI-reactive T cells are clearly implicated in the generation of these AAb, but the mechanism responsible for their activation remains unclear. We hypothesized that immunization of mice with human β2GPI, in the context of a potent innate immune activator lipopolysaccharide (LPS), would generate not only high titers of anti-PL AAb, but also a strong β2GPI-specific T cell response. Healthy, nonautoimmune C57BL/6 mice were immunized repeatedly with human β2GPI in the presence of LPS. High titers of anti-PL to β2GPI appeared after the second immunization, with T cell reactivity to β2GPI detectable only after the fourth immunization. Splenic T cells from these mice proliferated in response to native β2GPI, alone or bound to anionic PL. These T cells produced IL-2 and IFN-γ, but not IL-4 or IL-10, indicating a Th1 bias of the β2GPI-specific response. These findings suggest that T cells responsive to β2GPI may become activated in APS patients by exposure to their cognate Ag in the context of innate immune activation and a pro-inflammatory environment.     

Antiphospholipid antibodies mediate autoimmunity against dying cells

The Antiphospholipid Syndrome (APS) is characterized by thrombosis and pregnancy loss, clinical events mediated by pathogenic anti-phospholipid autoantibodies (aPL). β2-glycoprotein I (β2GPI) is the major autoantigens recognized by aPL. β2GPI is a cationic protein that binds to negatively charged surfaces such as those of apoptotic cells. This feature may lead to two major events: i) immunization with β2GPI fosters the Fc-receptor-mediated uptake by antigen presenting cells of apoptotic material decorated with β2GPIand the activation ofβ2GPI-specific T cells which in turn provide help to β2GPI-specific B cells for the production of anti-β2GPI; ii) apoptotic bodies decorated with β2GPI can be opsonized by anti-β2GPI and shifted towards a pro-inflammatory clearance by macrophages; epitope spread can occur with the generation of autoimmunity against nuclear autoantigens. In the presence of a predisposing genetic background and of a particular cytokine environment (type I interferons), the sequential emergence of autoantibodies can evolve into overt clinical disease. The spectrum of clinical phenotypes of the patients can be modulated by several factors affecting the pathogenicity of anti-β2GPI (e.g. domain specificity). We conclude that dying cells may play a dual role in APS: (I) as immunogen for the induction of aPL (etiology) and (II) as targets of aPL for the chronification of inflammation and the development of autoimmune diseases (pathology).     

Anti-β2GPI/β2GPI induced TF and TNF-α expression in monocytes involving both TLR4/MyD88 and TLR4/TRIF signaling pathways

Our previous study demonstrated that Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) could act as a co-receptor with annexin A2 (ANX2) mediating anti-β2-glycoprotein I/β2-glycoprotein I (anti-β₂GPI/β₂GPI)-induced tissue factor (TF) expression in human acute monocytic leukemia cell line THP-1. In the current study, we further explored the roles of TLR4 and its adaptors, MyD88 and TRIF, in anti-β₂GPI/β₂GPI-induced the activation of human blood monocytes and THP-1 cells and the relationship among TLR4, β₂GPI and ANX2 in this process. The results showed that treatment of monocytes or THP-1 cells with anti-β₂GPI/β₂GPI complex could increase TF, MyD88, TRIF as well as TNF-α (tumor necrosis factor alpha) expression. These effects were blocked by addition of TAK-242, a blocker of signaling transduction mediated by the intracellular domain of TLR4. Moreover, TLR4/β₂GPI/ANX2 complex could be detected in THP-1 cell lysates. Overall, our results indicate that anti-β₂GPI/β₂GPI complex induced TF and TNF-α expression involving both TLR4/MyD88 and TLR4/TRIF signaling pathways and TLR4 and its adaptors might be molecular targets for therapy of antiphospholipid syndrome (APS).     

C57BL/6哮喘小鼠细胞内镁含量与肺组织β2受体mRNA表达的相关性研究

目的：探讨细胞内镁含量对C57BL/6哮喘小鼠肺组织β₂受体mRNA表达的影响。方法:健康4－6周龄清洁级雌性C57BL/6小鼠96只，体重(12±2)g，随机数字表法分为A、B、C、D 4组，每组各24只。应用鸡卵蛋白(OVA)建立哮喘小鼠模型。A、B组予低镁饲料喂食，C、D组予正常镁饲料喂食。B、D组腹腔内注射沙丁胺醇诱导β₂受体低调节，A、C组腹腔内注射生理盐水作对照。第1 d、21 d、34 d各组分别随机抽取8只检测血浆Mg2+、红细胞内Mg2+、肺组织β₂受体mRNA及蛋白表达。 结果:1 d血浆Mg2+、红细胞内Mg2+、肺组织β₂AR mRNA及蛋白表达各组间差异无显著（均P>0.05）。21 d、34 d C组血浆Mg2+、红细胞内Mg2+、肺组织β₂AR mRNA及蛋白表达均显著高于A组［21 d：(0.84±0.09)mmol/L vs （0.57±0.10)mmol/L、(2.39±0.14)mmol/L vs （2.11±0.08)mmol/L、(0.75±0.09)mmol/L vs （0.59±0.06)pmol/g、（88.50±8.50)pmol/g vs （60.10±7.70)pmol/g，均P<0.05；34 d：(0.67±0.10)mmol/L vs (0.51±0.09)mmol/L、(2.17±0.08)mmol/L vs (2.05±0.09)mmol/L、(0.61±0.05)pmol/g vs (0.53±0.06)pmol/g、(76.60±7.10)pmol/g vs (58.00±7.60)pmol/g，均P<0.05］；21 d、34 d D组血浆Mg2+、红细胞内Mg2+、肺组织β₂AR mRNA及蛋白表达亦显著高于B组［21 d：(0.95±0.33)mmol/L vs (0.46±0.09)mmol/L、(2.32±0.18)mmol/L vs (1.87±0.14)mmol/L、(0.73±0.10)pmol/g vs (0.43±0.07)pmol/g、(96.90±8.00)pmol/g vs (47.90±4.90)pmol/g，均P<0.05；34 d：(0.71±0.10)mmol/L vs (0.31±0.08)mmol/L、(1.66±0.13)mmol/L vs (1.45±0.16)mmol/L、(0.40±0.07)pmol/g vs (0.33±0.05)pmol/g、(61.50±3.20)pmol/g vs (35.30±7.10)pmol/g，均P<0.05］。结论:细胞内镁缺乏的C57BL/6哮喘小鼠肺组织β₂受体表达减少，在激动剂作用下更易发生β₂受体低调节。     

Immunoglobulin A anti‐phospholipid antibodies in Swedish cases of systemic lupus erythematosus: associations with disease phenotypes,vascular events and damage accrual

Immunoglobulin (Ig) G‐ and IgM‐class anti‐cardiolipin antibodies (aCL) and lupus anti‐coagulant (LA) are included in the 1997 update of the American College of Rheumatology (ACR‐97) systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) criteria. Despite limited evidence, IgA‐aCL and IgA anti‐β₂‐glycoprotein‐I (anti‐β₂GPI) were included in the 2012 Systemic Lupus International Collaborating Clinics criteria. The present study aimed to evaluate IgG‐/IgA‐/IgM‐aCL and anti‐β₂GPI occurrence in relation to disease phenotype, smoking habits, pharmacotherapy, anti‐phospholipid syndrome (APS) and organ damage among 526 Swedish SLE patients meeting ACR‐97. Patients with rheumatoid arthritis (n = 100), primary Sjögren’s syndrome (n = 50) and blood donors (n = 507) served as controls. Anti‐phospholipid antibodies (aPL) were analysed by fluoroenzyme‐immunoassays detecting aCL/anti‐β₂GPI. Seventy‐six (14%) SLE cases fulfilled the Sydney APS‐criteria, and ≥ 1 aCL/anti‐β₂GPI isotype (IgG/IgA/IgM) occurred in 138 SLE patients (26%). Forty‐five (9%) of the SLE cases had IgA‐aCL, 20 of whom (4%) lacked IgG‐/IgM‐aCL. Seventy‐four (14%) tested positive for IgA anti‐β₂GPI, 34 (6%) being seronegative regarding IgG/IgM anti‐β₂GPI. Six (1%) had APS manifestations but were seropositive regarding IgA‐aCL and/or IgA anti‐β₂GPI in the absence of IgG/IgM‐aPL and LA. Positive LA and IgG‐aPL tests were associated with most APS‐related events and organ damage. Exclusive IgA anti‐β₂GPI occurrence associated inversely with Caucasian ethnicity [odds ratio (OR) = 0·21, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0·06–0·72) and photosensitivity (OR = 0·19, 95% CI = 0·05–0·72). Nephritis, smoking, LA‐positivity and statin/corticosteroid‐medication associated strongly with organ damage, whereas hydroxychloroquine‐medication was protective. In conclusion, IgA‐aPL is not rare in SLE (16%) and IgA‐aPL analysis may have additional value among SLE cases with suspected APS testing negative for other isotypes of aPL and LA.     

Research around β2-glycoprotein I: A major target for antiphospholipid antibodies

β2-Glycoprotein I (β2GPI), a phospholipid-binding protein, is one of the major target antigens for antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) found in patients with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). Thrombophilic disorders in APS patients are strongly associated with aPL, and their pathogenic properties depend on the presence of β2GPI. Procoagulant cell stimulation by aPL, via β2GPI, is one of the most plausible mechanisms of thrombosis in APS, and p38 mitogen activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway plays a crucial role in such activation. β2GPI is proteolytically cleaved in domain V by activated factor X or plasmin, leading to the generation of the nicked form of β2GPI. Recently, increasing attention is focused on the role of nicked-β2GPI as a regulator of extrinsic fibrinolysis pathway.     

IgG2 subclass restriction of anti-β2 glycoprotein 1 antibodies in autoimmune patients

The IgG subclass and light chain distribution of antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) occurring in autoimmune patients were determined by means of two radioimmunoassays using either cardiolipinor β₂ glycoprotein 1 (β₂GP1)-coated microtitre plates and mouse MoAbs. Of 50 sera selected for positivity of anticardiolipin antibodies (ACA) of the IgG isotype, 32 (64%) possessed anti-β₂GPl antibodies and their presence was closely associated with clinical features of the antiphospholipid syndrome. Good correlations were found between ACA and anti-β₂GP1 antibodies when considering antibody level and patterns of light chain and IgG subclass, suggesting that, overall, the same antibodies were being measured. Light chain analysis showed the polyclonal origin of these antibodies and, in most sera, a trend towards use of λ chain. Among sera positive for anti-β₂GP1 antibodies, IgG2 was the major subclass reactive with β₂GP1 and cardiolipin (87% and 74β₂ of the IgG antibody activity, respectively). In contrast, in the group of 18 sera lacking anti-β₂GP1 antibodies, ACA were largely restricted to lgG3, with a lesser contribution by IgGl. A few selected sera from the anti-β₂GP1-positive group were shown to contain mixtures of antibodies that required β₂GP1 (restricted to IgG2 present in large amounts) and did not require this cofactor (restricted to IgG3 and/or IgG1 present in low amounts) for their reactivity with cardiolipin. There was no contribution of glycosylation to the epitopes recognized by anti-β₂GP1 antibodies, even though human anti-carbohydrate antibodies are restricted to the IgG2 subclass. These findings further emphasize the intra- and interindividual heterogeneity of aPL, and should help to discriminate clinically relevant specificies.     

Tolerogenic dendritic cells specific for β2-glycoprotein-I Domain-I,attenuate experimental antiphospholipid syndrome

Tolerogenic dendritic cells (tDCs) have the potential to control the outcome of autoimmunity by modulating the immune response. The aim of this study was to uncover the tolerance efficacy attributed to beta-2-glycoprotein-I (β₂GPI) tDCs or β₂GPI domain-I (D-I) and domain-V (D-V)-tDCs in mice with antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). tDCs were pulsed with β₂GPI or D-I or D-V derivatives. Our results revealed that β₂GPI related tDCs phenotype includes CD80^high, CD86^high CD40^high MHC class II^high. The miRNA profiling encompass miRNA 23b^high, miRNA 142-3p^low and miRNA 221^low. In addition the β₂GPI related tDCs showed reduced secretion of IL-1β, IL-12 and IL-23. D-I tDCs treatment was more efficient than β₂GPI tDCs in inducing of tolerance in APS mice, manifested by lowered titers of anti- β₂GPI antibodies (Abs) and reduced percentage of fetal loss. Tolerance induction was accompanied by poor T cell response to β₂GPI, high numbers of CD4 + CD25 + FOXP3 + T-regulatory cells (Treg), reduced levels of IFNγ, IL-17 and increased expression of IL-10 and TGFβ. Tolerance was successfully transferred by Treg cells from the tolerized mice to β₂GPI immunized mice. We conclude that predominantly D-I-tDCs and β₂GPI tDCs have the potential to attenuate experimental APS by induction of Treg cells, reduction of anti- β₂GPI Abs titers and increased expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. We suggest that β2-GPI-D-I-tDCs may offer a novel approach for developing therapy for APS patients.     

Antiphospholipid syndrome induction exacerbates a transgenic Alzheimer disease model on a female background

The antiphospholipid syndrome (APS) is characterized by antiphospholipid antibodies (aPL) and vascular brain disease which is often associated with dementia. We examined the neurodegenerative pathological processes underlying APS by inducing APS in a transgenic animal model of Alzheimer's disease. Female C57B6/SJL mice carrying the APP₆₉₅SWE mutation (Tg2576) and wild-type (wt) controls were immunized with β₂-glycoprotein-I (APS mice) or adjuvant alone (controls) at 4 months of age. At the age of 8 months the APP-APS mice developed high levels of aPL associated with motor hypoactivity in a staircase test (p < 0.03 by t-test) and impaired performance in the cognitive T-maze (p < 0.02 for main effect of treatment by repeated measures ANOVA) relative to APP-CFA mice and controls. wt-APS and wt-control did not differ significantly in their behavior or cognition. Histological studies revealed mature plaques only in the APP-APS group which also had higher amyloid load and number of activated microglia compared to all other groups. The results indicate a significant interaction between APP genotype and the induction of APS on a female background. The mechanisms involved may also be important in human APS-AD co-morbidity.     

Mitogenic and polyclonal B cell activation activities of synthetic lipid A analogues

The activation of murine B cells and macrophages by synthetic lipid A analogues, solubilized with triethylamine and complexed with bovine serum albumin, were investigated in vitro. The analogues used are nonphosphorylated, C-1 or C-4′ monophos-phorylated and C-1,4′ diphosphorylated derivatives of β-1,6-linked D-glucosamine disaccharide possessing both ester- and amide-bound fatty acid substituents. They were divided into 4 groups, A, B, C and D in terms of the fatty acid substitution. Ester- and amine-bound fatty acids of the analogues are both tetradecanoic acids (C₁₄) in group A, C₁₄ and (R)-3-hydroxytetradecanoic acids (C₁₄-OH) in group B, both C₁₄-OH in group C and C₁₄-OH and (R)-3-tetradecanoyloxytetradecanoic acids in group D. Mitogenic activity was exhibited in spleen cells from C3H/HeN mice by the C-1 monophosphorylated analogues in groups A and B, and by the C-4′ monophosphorylated analogues in groups B, C and D, but not in cells from C3H/HeJ mice. Nonphosphorylated analogues in groups A, B and C, and C-4′ monophosphorylated analogue in group A showed negative mitogenic activity. Only the nonphosphorylated analogue in group D exhibited mitogenic activity in spleen cells from C3H/HeJ mice as well as those from C3H/HeN mice. None of the other analogues exhibited the activity in C3H/HeJ spleen cells. Polyclonal B cell activation activity was exhibited by the C-1 monophosphorylated analogues in groups A and B, and by the C-4′ monophosphorylated analogues in groups C and D. Nonphosphorylated analogues in all groups and C-4′ monophosphorylated analogues in groups A and B showed negative PBA activity. None of the analogues tested could induce any cytostatic macrophages from thioglycollate-elicited peritoneal macrophages.     

Natural Killer Cytotoxicity and Antibody-Dependent Cell Cytotoxicity to Herpes Simplex Virus-Infected Target Cells in Murine Pregnancy

ABSTRACT: In vitro natural killer cytotoxicity (NKC) and antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC) activity against herpes simplex virus (HSV)-infected cells were evaluated in a pregnant murine model (C₅₇B1₆inbred strain). Virgin (n = 16) and pregnant (late gestation) mice (n = 15) were infected intraperitoneally with HSV, type 1. After 18 hr, a 0.5-ml aliquot of the peritoneal wash was frozen for virus plaque assay, and the cells were cultured in the ⁵¹chromium release assay for NKC and ADCC. %NKC (mean ± S.E.) to HSV-infected targets was significantly suppressed (P < 0.05) in pregnant mice, 10.3% ± 1.9, compared to that of virgin mice, 32.5% ± 2.5. This suppression was abrogated with HSV-specific antisera (%ADCC); 53.9% ± 4.4 (pregnant) compared to 49.1% ± 3.6 (virgin). The diminished NKC activity in pregnant mice was reflected in an increased mean number of virus particles in the peritoneal wash, 266 + 66 PFU/ml, compared to 38 ± 11 PFU/ml in virgin mice (P < 0.05). We concluded that NKC, but not ADCC, to HSV-infected targets was suppressed and that HSV elimination was impaired in pregnant mice.     

Variable region sequences of autoantibodies from mice with experimental systemic lupus erythematosus

We have sequenced nine monoclonal antibodies (mAb) derived from C3H.SW mice in which experimental systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was induced. The hybridomas were selected for binding to DNA or to HeLa nuclear extract (NE). Three mAb were found to bind DNA, and are shown to exhibit sequence characteristics of pathogenic anti-DNA antibodies. One, mAb 2C4C2, is shown to use a heavy chain V region gene (V_H) identical to the V_H of anti-DNA mAb isolated from other lupus-prone mice, namely (NZB × NZW)F₁. The light chain V region gene (V_L) of mAb 2C4C2 is 98 % homologous to the V_L of another anti-DNA mAb, also isolated from (NZB × NZW)F₁ mice. The other two anti-DNA mAb, 5G12-4 and 5G12-6, share 93 % of their V_H sequences with that of mAb 2C4C2. Six mAb bound proteins of HeLa NE. Four of these six antibodies were found to use the VH124 V_H and V-L7 V_L. The nine mAb use a total of five V_H and four V_L germ-line genes, demonstrating that the autoantibodies induced in mice with experimental SLE do not originate from one B cell clone. Three of these nine V_H and V_L were identical in sequence to germ-line genes, while at least three others had somatic mutations. The latter suggests that the above autoantibodies arise in mice by both usage of existing (pre-immune) B cells, and through an antigen-driven process. Furthermore, it appears that autoantibodies found in mice with experimental SLE use genetic elements similar to those used by mAb that were isolated from mouse strains which develop lupus spontaneously.     

Immunomodulation by 8‐week voluntary exercise in mice

This study was designed to evaluate the effects of voluntary exercise on macrophage and lymphocyte functions in mice. Male A/He inbred mice aged 19 weeks were divided into two groups: a group given voluntary exercise and a control group (n = 10 in each group). Exercise consisted of spontaneous running in wheels for 8 weeks (3 days week^–1). Glucose consumption of peritoneal macrophages in the exercise group during incubation up to 72 h was significantly higher than that in the control group (70 and 13%, respectively). Also, activities of acid phosphatase (APH) (10.75 ± 0.37 IU), β‐glucuronidase (GLU) (1.55 ± 0.07 IU) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) (43.3 ± 0.7 IU) in the peritoneal macrophages in the exercise group was significantly increased (P < 0.01). Compared with the control group, the exercise group had a significant increase of about twofold in macrophage production of nitric oxide (NO₂^–) stimulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (11.1 ± 0.1 vs. 5.9 ± 0.1 μM mL^–1 in exercise and control groups, respectively; P < 0.01). Stimulation indices both by concanavalin A (Con A) and phytohaemagglutinin were also significantly higher in the exercise group (P < 0.01). A significant increase in the splenocyte production of interleukin‐2 (IL‐2) stimulated by Con A was noticed in the exercise group (354.1 ± 28.8 vs. 218.9 ± 23.5 pg mL^–1 in exercise and control groups, respectively; P < 0.01). These findings suggest that voluntary exercise enhances not only macrophage function but also lymphocyte responsiveness in mice. In the studies of voluntary exercise, evaluation of NO₂^– production, as an indicator of macrophage function, is recommended.