Psychophysiology by the end of the 20th century.

The first real breakthrough in the research of brain organization and thinking in the 20th century was made in neurophysiological investigations performed in direct contact with different sites of the brain, which became possible in diagnosis and treatment. The second breakthrough is happening at present. It is based on the opportunities provided by the non-invasive technique. The theory of the unique character of the brain system consisting of rigid and flexible elements maintaining thinking was created as well as concepts on the reliability in the system, of the error detector and intrinsic protective mechanisms of the brain. In the clinic these data enabled us to help patients who had lost various functions due to stroke. In confirmation with the above theory it was revealed that the same task could be solved in the brain by systems consisting of different elements due to environmental changes or even direction of attention. Data on the functional properties or every zone of the cortex and subcortex as well as cerebellum are rapidly increasing in number. The first priority lies in neurophysiologically penetrating into the physiological character and micromosaic of the activation sites of PET. The main aim of future brain research lies in the investigation of the fine physiological rearrangements which underlie thinking, i.e. deciphering its brain code. This is going to be the basis for the third, extremely valid breakthrough in the research on brain organization of thinking.     

Evolution of influenza B viruses at the end of the 20th century]

Influenza B viruses (48 strains) isolated in Russia in 1992-2000 have been investigated. The majority (29 strains) were isolated in 1994-1995. The strains were isolated in embryonated eggs and MDCK cells. Study of their antigenic properties showed that all of them belonged to an evolutionary group B/Jamagata/16/88-like viruses. Antigenic drift in the hemagglutinin (HA) of epidemic strains isolated in Russia was the same as in reference strains of this evolutionary group. HA proteins of isolated and reference strains differed by 8-12 amino acid sequence positions. Paired sera of patients with influenza-like diseases collected during this decade were tested. Seroconversions to B/Jamagata/16/88-like strains were discovered for during the entire period of observation, while seroconversions to reference strains of the B/Victoria/2/87 group only in 1999-2000 season, which can be regarded as activation of these viruses in Russia.     

The study of anatomy in England from 1700 to the early 20th century

The study of anatomy in England during the 18th and 19th century has become infamous for bodysnatching from graveyards to provide a sufficient supply of cadavers. However, recent discoveries have improved our understanding of how and why anatomy was studied during the enlightenment, and allow us to see the context in which dissection of the human body took place. Excavations of infirmary burial grounds and medical school cemeteries, study of hospital archives, and analysis of the content of surviving anatomical collections in medical museums enables us to re-evaluate the field from a fresh perspective. The pathway from a death in poverty, sale of the corpse to body dealer, dissection by anatomist or medical student, and either the disposal and burial of the remains or preservation of teaching specimens that survive today in medical museums is a complex and fascinating one.     

Training African-American residents in the 20th century

Bellevue Hospital, the oldest public hospital in the United States and a lineal descendant of an infirmary for slaves, accepted its first African-American resident, Dr. Ubert Conrad Vincent, in 1918. This occurred at a time when many medical centers were not accepting African-American residents. At the end of WWII, one-third of the accredited medical schools still barred African Americans. However, Bellevue Hospital continued to train African-American residents. Between the 1920s and 1940s four African Americans matriculated at Bellevue Hospital. There were six in the 1950s, four in the 1960s, and 25 in the 1970s. By the 1980s, 40 African Americans matriculated, and between 1990 and 1995, 61 matriculated. Despite its historic first, Bellevue lagged slightly behind the national average. While the number of African-American residents occupying U.S. residency slots increased from 2.8% in 1978 to 6.5% in 1996, African Americans comprised 3.6% of residency slots at Bellevue between 1985-1995. Currently, only 7% of practicing physicians and 5% in faculty positions are latino, African-American, and Native American. Increasing the number of under-represented minority (URM) physicians is important to the United States, as URM physicians are more likely to serve the poor and uninsured, therefore improving the overall healthcare of the underprivileged. A study by the Association of American Medical Colleges indicated that minority medical school graduates were five times more likely to report that they planned to serve minority populations than other graduates. In their position paper, the American College of Physicians expressed the belief that increasing the number of URM physicians will help reduce healthcare disparities that can hurt minority populations and lead to poor health outcomes. The Supreme Court acknowledged the importance of racial diversity by upholding the University of Michigan affirmative action admissions policy in its June 2003 ruling. URM physicians are needed not only to serve minority populations but also to serve as mentors and role models for prospective and current students. The first African-American resident to graduate from the Bellevue Residency Program did indeed treat the underserved, as Dr. Vincent founded the Vincent Sanatorium, dedicated to treating African-American patients, and training African-American nurses and doctors. Over the course of the 20th century, Bellevue Hospital has trained increasing numbers of African-American physicians. It is hoped that, like their predecessor, Dr. Vincent, they will provide care to underserved communities and to the community as a whole, as well as serve as role models for generations to come.     

A biosocial approach to living conditions: inter-generational changes of stature dimorphism in 20th-century Spain

Background: Applying sexual stature dimorphism (SSD) to history and the social sciences faces the difficulty of disentangling nature from nurture in addition to the limitations of sources (e.g. small, fragmented or heterogeneous samples).

Aim: To investigate the relationship between inter-generational changes and social differences in SSD and the evolution of living conditions in 20th-century Spain.

Subjects and methods: Self-reported height and socio-demographic information from individuals born 1910–1979 (n?=?99?023) were drawn from health interview surveys. Weighed least squares regression was used to construct continuous time-cohort series of SSD for the entire population and for specific socioeconomic groups represented by levels of educational attainment.

Results: SSD remained below modern values among cohorts that were exposed to structural deprivation at pre-adult ages. Socioeconomic status mediated the correction of these deviations among subsequent cohorts. Lower classes (less educated segments of the population) systematically deviated to a greater extent from normal modern SSD values and they reached these values later in time.

Conclusions: In Spain, variations in SSD have been found that are associated with both socioeconomic changes at a nationwide level and SES differentials at the individual level, thus continuous series of this indicator offer new opportunities in the study of living conditions of current and past generations.     

One year follow-up study of stature,weight, emergence of dentition,and sexual maturation of well-nourished indian girls from birth to 20 years

Stature, weight, and emergence of deciduous and permanent teeth of 1,330 well-nourished girls from birth to 20 years belonging to well-off families residing in Delhi are reported. All subjects were measured on two occasions 1 year apart. In addition, each subject was examined for gingival emergence of deciduous or permanent teeth on both occasions. Data on age at menarche were also collected. Single-year velocities of stature and weight are highest during the first year. The peak of adolescent spurts in stature and weight velocities are observed at 11.0 and 12.0 years, respectively. The first deciduous tooth to emerge is the mandibular I₁, of girls at 7.6 months. The sequence of emergence based on ascending median ages is I1, I2, M1, C, and M2 for both maxillary as well as mandibular deciduous teeth. The permanent dentition starts with the emergence of mandibular M₁ at 5.75 years. The sequence of emergence of permanent teeth is M¹, I¹, I², PM¹, C, PM², and M² in the maxilla, and M₁, I₁, I2, C, PM₁, PM₂, and M₂ in the mandible. Annual increase in number of permanent teeth erupted shows a spurt between 9 and 10 years of age. Median age at menarche is 12.37 ± 0.03 with a standard deviation of 0.8 years; it is about one and one-half years later than the estimated age at peak height velocity. Single-year velocities of stature and weight decline after the onset of menarche. An association of emergence of deciduous teeth with birth weight is observed. Newborns with higher birth weight tend to have more teeth emerged at one year of age compared to those having lower birth weight. In all age groups, girls who had experienced menarche are taller and heavier and have more erupted permanent teeth compared to those who have not yet attained menarche. Girls with earlier menarche apparently have short adult stature compared to those with later menarche. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

A proliferation of pathogens through the 20th century

A substantial proportion of immunologists, microbiologists and health professionals – and, indeed, many dictionaries – currently regard the term pathogen as a synonym for a pathogenic organism (most often a micro-organism). I will argue that this is a distortion of its original meaning –'a specific causative agent of disease'. An analysis of the historical use of the term pathogen together with a comparison of the meanings of pathogen, pathogenic and pathogenesis suggest that this was an insidious change. It began as a convenient abbreviation, escalated into a misappropriation and is now lodged in bio-medicine's popular lexicon. In science, we should resist the pressures brought about by the mass action of common usage – unless there is a good, logical reason to accept this change. I propose that this common usage results in a distortion and leads to conceptual confusion, particularly when we try to understand the interaction between hosts and invasive organisms. This drift, in which pathogen becomes exclusively a living organism, is corrupting. There is a strong case for correcting and reversing it.     

The mysterious trend in American heights in the 20th century

Background: The secular trend in the height of the US population has been almost neglected in a comparative perspective, despite its being a useful indicator of early-life biological conditions.

Aim: The study estimated the height of the US population and compared it to Western European trends after World War II.

Subjects and method: The complete set of NHES and NHANES data were analyzed, collected between 1959 and 2004 by the National Center for Health Statistics, in order to construct trends of the physical stature of US-born men and women limited to non-Hispanic blacks and whites. Also analyzed was the trend in the height of US military personnel whose parents were also born in the USA. The trends and levels were compared with those of several European populations.

Results: The increase in the physical stature of US adults slowed down by mid-century concurrent with a substantial acceleration in height attainment in Western and Northern Europe. Military data corroborate this finding in the main. After being the tallest population in the world ever since colonial times, Americans are now shorter than most Western and Northern Europeans and as much as 4.7–5.7?cm shorter than the Dutch, who are the tallest in world today.

Conclusion: Given the well-established relationship between adult stature and early-life biological welfare, it was hypothesized that either American diets are sub-optimal or that the universal health care systems and social safety net of the European welfare states are providing a more favorable early-life health environment than does the American health care system.     

The mysterious trend in American heights in the 20th century

BACKGROUND: The secular trend in the height of the US population has been almost neglected in a comparative perspective, despite its being a useful indicator of early-life biological conditions. AIM: The study estimated the height of the US population and compared it to Western European trends after World War II. SUBJECTS AND METHOD: The complete set of NHES and NHANES data were analyzed, collected between 1959 and 2004 by the National Center for Health Statistics, in order to construct trends of the physical stature of US-born men and women limited to non-Hispanic blacks and whites. Also analyzed was the trend in the height of US military personnel whose parents were also born in the USA. The trends and levels were compared with those of several European populations. RESULTS: The increase in the physical stature of US adults slowed down by mid-century concurrent with a substantial acceleration in height attainment in Western and Northern Europe. Military data corroborate this finding in the main. After being the tallest population in the world ever since colonial times, Americans are now shorter than most Western and Northern Europeans and as much as 4.7-5.7 cm shorter than the Dutch, who are the tallest in world today. CONCLUSION: Given the well-established relationship between adult stature and early-life biological welfare, it was hypothesized that either American diets are sub-optimal or that the universal health care systems and social safety net of the European welfare states are providing a more favorable early-life health environment than does the American health care system.     

The frequency of metopism in Anatolian populations dated from the Neolithic to the first quarter of the 20th century

Metopism, which is defined as a condition in which the two pieces of the frontal bone fail to merge in early childhood, displays varying degrees of incidence. In this study, the variation of the frequency of metopism across historical periods is investigated on the skulls of 487 adults from 12 different Ancient Anatolian populations dated to various periods of history ranging from the Neolithic to the first quarter of the 20th century. In addition, the study also examines the relationship of metopism to sex and cranial form. It is revealed that the frequency of metopism showed a relative increase across time periods in Anatolia after the Neolithic Period, with the exception of the Cevizcio?lu Çiftli?i population. However, no significant relationship was found between metopism and cranial form or sex. It is found that the frequency of metopism in Ancient Anatolia had a distribution range of 3.3–14.9%. This distribution shows that the inhabitants of Anatolia have a heterogeneous genetic make‐up due to the geographical situation of Anatolia, which has been open to gene flow both in the past and at present. Clin. Anat. 21:471–478, 2008. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Height and weight of early 20th century Filipino men

Background : Recent anthropometric studies of Filipinos have concentrated on women and children. While present-day studies of Filipino men are few, scattered sources of historical height and weight samples exist and can be studied to estimate a rough baseline for comparison, as well as to study trends in the past. Aim : This paper estimates heights and weights of men in the Philippines about a century ago. Height-by-age profiles and comparisons to contemporary populations in south-east Asia as well as present day Filipinos provide context. Subjects and methods : One sample consisted of 843 prisoners from throughout the islands, who were measured by an American anthropologist in Manila. A previously overlooked published source included measurements of 1016 seamen, police and prison guards, and civil servants in Manila. A contemporary source also measured 100 relatively remote Igorrote in Luzon. Results : Average heights fell in a relatively narrow range of 1.60-1.62 m, except for police who were subject to a minimum height requirement. Body mass index (BMI) fell in a broader range of 18.24-21.26. Some regional variation was also evident in the prisoner sample. Height-by-age profiles suggested some improvement in net nutritional conditions over the century. Conclusions : Heights of turn of the century Filipino men were not very different from men elsewhere in south-east Asia, nor from present-day Filipino men. To understand trends in heights over the longer term more samples of men in the present-day Philippines would be desirable.     

Height and weight of early 20th century Filipino men

BACKGROUND: Recent anthropometric studies of Filipinos have concentrated on women and children. While present-day studies of Filipino men are few, scattered sources of historical height and weight samples exist and can be studied to estimate a rough baseline for comparison, as well as to study trends in the past. AIM: This paper estimates heights and weights of men in the Philippines about a century ago. Height-by-age profiles and comparisons to contemporary populations in south-east Asia as well as present day Filipinos provide context. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: One sample consisted of 843 prisoners from throughout the islands, who were measured by an American anthropologist in Manila. A previously overlooked published source included measurements of 1016 seamen, police and prison guards, and civil servants in Manila. A contemporary source also measured 100 relatively remote Igorrote in Luzon. RESULTS: Average heights fell in a relatively narrow range of 1.60-1.62 m, except for police who were subject to a minimum height requirement. Body mass index (BMI) fell in a broader range of 18.24-21.26. Some regional variation was also evident in the prisoner sample. Height-by-age profiles suggested some improvement in net nutritional conditions over the century. CONCLUSIONS: Heights of turn of the century Filipino men were not very different from men elsewhere in south-east Asia, nor from present-day Filipino men. To understand trends in heights over the longer term more samples of men in the present-day Philippines would be desirable.     

Quinine prophylaxis in the early 20th century in malaria -affected Bologna

The authors outline public health and environmental conditions in Italy at the end of the 19th century and the attempts made at improvement in this field. Details of health investigations carried out within the framework of the emerging State Railways are given, together with information on studies in the health and social sectors. Such investigations showed a constant connection between wetlands, malaria, and social and economic decline. Far from improving public health, political and economic policies to consolidate the nation had compounded the existing critical situation and led to a deterioration of public health and living conditions of those who, like seasonal labourers, shepherds and fishermen, lived in malarial areas. With the laws passed from 1878 onwards and especially those at the beginning of the 20th century, attempts were made - with little success - to reverse the trend with a series of palliative measures. By contrast, outside the city gates of Bologna, where malaria epidemics had occurred between 1899 and 1901, wetland drainage, treatment of the sick and prophylaxis of healthy subjects, through the provision of quinine, achieved good results. The authors attribute such success to the fact that the population of Bologna had not become inured to the "malarial climate" which made people passive and abulic, and thus collaborated with the local administration by supporting drainage measures. The area of Bologna affected by the epidemic experienced little environmental deterioration, thereby few well-targeted measures sufficed to eradicate the epidemic.