Effects of welfare reform on children of adolescent mothers: moderation by maternal depression, father involvement, and grandmother involvement

There are few data available on how effects of welfare reform on children may differ for different kinds of families. This study examined the constructs of maternal depression, father involvement, and grandmother involvement as moderators of the effects of a welfare reform program on children. The sample included 1,602 children between the ages of 3 and 6 1/2 whose mothers had participated in New Chance, a multi-site welfare-to-work program with an emphasis on human capital development (i.e., education, job training). Father and grandmother co-residence were investigated, in addition to perceived support from these family members, in predicting cognitive and behavioral child outcomes. The mediating roles of parenting stress and emotional support in parenting were also explored. Although main effects were found for the intervention and for maternal depression, no main effects were found for the family ecology variables. However, interactions suggested complex relationships among New Chance and the family characteristics for both the full sample and for Latina families. Results are discussed in terms of policy implications and possible future research.     

Effects of Combining Public Assistance and Employment on Mothers and Their Young Children

SUMMARY

One goal of recent welfare reform legislation is to move welfare-dependent mothers with young children into the paid labor force. However, prior to the new legislation, many welfare-dependent women were already engaged in employment activities. In this paper we examine whether child or maternal well-being is influenced by a mother's strategy of combining work and public assistance receipt in the late 1980s. Measures of well-being include children's cognitive test scores and behavior problems, parenting behavior, and maternal mental health, social support, and coping strategies collected when children were 2 ½ to 3 years of age. Data from the Infant Health and Development Program (a sample of low birthweight, premature infants born in 8 sites in 1985) were used to identify low-income families (incomes under 200% of the poverty threshold; N = 525). Comparisons were made among mothers in the following groups: (a) Work Only, (b) Some Work-Some Welfare, (c) Some Work-No Welfare, (d) No Work-No Welfare, and (e) Welfare Only. Mothers in the Some Work-Some Welfare group had children with cognitive and behavioral scores similar to children whose mothers were in the Work Only group; these two groups also had similar mental health, social support, and coping scores. However, not working and receiving welfare (Welfare Only) was associated with negative cognitive and behavioral outcomes for children, with less stimulating home learning environments, lower maternal mental health, less social support, and more avoidant coping strategies. We discuss the proposition that welfare and work may be complementary rather than opposing strategies, in terms of putting together a family income package.     

Characteristics and changes in the mental health indicators of expecting parents in a couple-based parenting support program in Japan

Abstract

Postpartum depression is a serious problem not only for mothers, but also for their children and families. Evidence is scarce on the effectiveness of couple-targeted antenatal interventions aimed at preventing postpartum depression in Asia. Therefore, we implemented an antenatal parenting support program from Australia (“empathy program”) at three sites in Japan, and assessed the characteristics of participating couples and changes in their mental health indicators before and after the program (during pregnancy and 6?weeks postpartum, respectively). In this program, participant couples discussed concerns during pregnancy and a “difficult day” scenario with other same-gender participants and then with their own partners. In total, 100 couples attended the program. Among 60 participating mothers, 20% screened positive for maternal depression symptoms (defined as an Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale greater than 9). Changes in paternal empathy and maternal antenatal Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale score were significantly associated with maternal postpartum Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale score in multivariable analyses. Our results indicate that a key in preventing postpartum depression is paternal involvement and long-term support from antenatal phase.     

Effects of combining public assistance and employment on mothers and their young children

One goal of recent welfare reform legislation is to move welfare-dependent mothers with young children into the paid labor force. However, prior to the new legislation, many welfare-dependent women were already engaged in employment activities. In this paper we examine whether child or maternal well-being is influenced by a mother's strategy of combining work and public assistance receipt in the late 1980s. Measures of well-being include children's cognitive test scores and behavior problems, parenting behavior, and maternal mental health, social support, and coping strategies collected when children were 2 1/2 to 3 years of age. Data from the Infant Health and Development Program (a sample of low birthweight, premature infants born in 8 sites in 1985) were used to identify low-income families (incomes under 200% of the poverty threshold; N = 525). Comparisons were made among mothers in the following groups: (a) Work Only, (b) Some Work-Some Welfare, (c) Some Work-No Welfare, (d) No Work-No Welfare, and (e) Welfare Only. Mothers in the Some Work-Some Welfare group had children with cognitive and behavioral scores similar to children whose mothers were in the Work Only group; these two groups also had similar mental health, social support, and coping scores. However, not working and receiving welfare (Welfare Only) was associated with negative cognitive and behavioral outcomes for children, with less stimulating home learning environments, lower maternal mental health, less social support, and more avoidant coping strategies. We discuss the proposition that welfare and work may be complementary rather than opposing strategies, in terms of putting together a family income package.     

Perceptions of father involvement patterns in teenage‐mother families: Predictors and links to mothers’ psychological adjustment*

Abstract: Based on adolescent mothers’ reports, longitudinal patterns of involvement of young, unmarried biological fathers (n = 77) in teenage‐mother families using cluster analytic techniques were examined. Approximately one third of fathers maintained high levels of involvement over time, another third demonstrated low involvement at both time points, and the final third started out highly involved at Wave 1 but decreased to low levels of involvement by Wave 2. Multinomial logistic analyses suggest that mothers’ positive relationships with both the father and his family predict a greater likelihood of initiated and sustained high father involvement. In contrast, stronger support from the maternal grandmother is related to decreasing father involvement over time, and coresidence with the grandmother is related to sustained low father involvement. Whereas a decreasing pattern of father involvement was significantly associated with increased maternal parenting stress over time, the patterns of father involvement were unrelated to changes in young mothers’ levels of depressive symptoms and mastery.     

Family Income and Parenting: The Role of Parental Depression and Social Support

This study examined the relations among family income, social support, parental depression, and parenting among 290 predominantly rural families with children at risk for disruptive or socially withdrawn behaviors. Structural equation modeling and multiple regression were used, and the results showed that low family income was related to high levels of parental depression, which in turn were associated with disruptive parenting. The findings also showed that social support mediated the adverse relationship between low family income and parental depression. Social support was directly related to positive parenting and indirectly related to parent‐child relational frustration via parental depression. Social support also moderated the indirect relationship between low family income and parenting. Implications for prevention intervention are discussed.     

Redefining parent involvement in Head Start: a two-generation approach

The present review of the literature aims to look at two-generation programs and their effects on children and parents as a potential strategy to improve parent involvement in Head Start while responding to the self-sufficiency needs of families. This paper reviews several two-generation program evaluations: Comprehensive Child Development Program, Even Start Family Literacy Program, Head Start Family Service Centers, New Chance and New Hope. Lessons learned from the evaluation of these programs are used to suggest options for enhancing Head Start program's ability to respond to the needs of low-income families and maintain a high level of parent involvement.     

School readiness among low-income black children: family characteristics,parenting, and social support

This study focuses on the associations between family variables and academic and social school readiness in low-income Black children. Analyses drew from the National Institute for Child Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development dataset. The participants included 122 children and their mothers. Data collection occurred when the children were 1, 6, 15, 24, 36, and 54 months old. Findings indicated that maternal sensitivity and the quality of the home environment predicted cognitive and language outcomes, whereas maternal depression and social support predicted social–behavioural outcomes. In addition, the impact of family resources on cognitive and language outcomes was fully mediated by parenting behaviours and the impact of social support on behaviour problems was fully mediated through maternal depression. Implications for family intervention are discussed.     

Mother‐Grandmother Conflict,Negative Parenting,and Young Children's Social Development in Multigenerational Families

Mutigenerational households that include grandmothers and adult mothers caring for grandchildren are increasingly common. The influence, however, of mother‐grandmother relationship quality and grandmothers' parenting on grandchildren's social development remains largely unexplored in these three‐generation households. This study examines linkages among caregiver depressive symptoms, mother‐grandmother verbal conflict, observed parenting, and 36‐month‐old grandchildren's problem and prosocial behaviors among a subsample from the Family Life Project (N = 85) consisting of economically disadvantaged multigenerational families. The findings suggest that mother‐grandmother relationship conflict presents a risk to children's behavior directly and indirectly via mothers' negative parenting behaviors. Mothers seem to be more influenced by the mother‐grandmother relationship than grandmothers. These results highlight the importance of including mother‐grandmother conflict in mutigenerational families in family assessments and interventions.     

Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Low Literacy as Potential Barriers to Employment in a Sample of Families Receiving Welfare: Are There Two-Generational Implications?

SUMMARY

This study examines the role of maternal depressive symptoms and low maternal literacy in predicting outcomes in two generations in families receiving welfare: mothers' employment and children's development. The sample consists of 351 African-American families, each with a preschool-age child, in which the mother had applied for or was receiving welfare. Close to the start of the study, 52.6 percent of the mothers in the sample had scores indicating lower literacy, 39.5 percent reported moderate to high levels of depressive symptoms, and 24.6 percent had a co-occurrence of these. Using continuous scores, in multivariate analyses of variance, neither level of literacy, extent of depressive symptoms, nor the interaction of these, were found to predict two measures of subsequent employment (any employment across the two year follow-up period, and current employment at the time of the follow-up). However, when cut points were used (low literacy; moderate to high depressive symptoms), mothers with low literacy were found less often to be employed approximately two years later. Multivariate analyses of variance examining the set of child outcomes (cognitive school readiness and behavior problems) in light of mothers' depressive symptoms and literacy level found a statistically significant interaction of literacy level and extent of depressive symptoms: children of mothers with more depressive symptoms had less favorable developmental outcomes only in the presence of low maternal literacy. Structural equation models provide evidence that parenting behavior mediates the relationship between the predictor variables and child outcomes, and that the pathways from depressive symptoms through parenting to child outcomes are stronger when maternal depressive symptoms co-occur with low maternal literacy.     

Young, disadvantaged fathers' involvement with their infants: an ecological perspective.

PURPOSE: To investigate fathers' involvement with their children using an ecological model, multiple respondents, and a comprehensive definition of fathers' involvement. The study's primary objectives were: (a) to describe the characteristics of fathers whose infants are born to low-income, urban, African-American adolescent mothers; (b) to describe the ways in which fathers are involved with their children; and (c) to identify factors associated with fathers' involvement. METHODS: A total of 181 first-time mothers (aged <18 years) living in three-generation households (infant, mother, and grandmother) were recruited from three urban hospitals shortly after delivery and invited to participate in a longitudinal study of parenting. Mothers provided the name of their infant's father; 109 (60%) of the fathers also agreed to participate. Baseline interviews of mothers, fathers, and grandmothers addressed demographic characteristics, relationships, and the father's involvement with his child. RESULTS: Three multivariate regression models were used to identify factors associated with paternal involvement, explaining 35% to 51% of the variability in father involvement. Regardless of the respondent (mother, father, or grandmother), paternal involvement was predicted most strongly by the quality of the parents' romantic relationship. The father's employment status, the maternal grandmother's education, and the father's relationship with the baby's maternal grandmother were also associated with paternal involvement. CONCLUSIONS: The study confirmed the value of an ecological perspective that uses multiple informants and a comprehensive definition of father involvement that includes multiple role functions. Efforts to increase paternal involvement should help young parents separate the father's relationship with their child from the romantic relationship between the mother and father, address the roles played by maternal grandmothers, and assist fathers to complete their education, and obtain and keep jobs.     

Tourette syndrome,parenting aggravation,and the contribution of co-occurring conditions among a nationally representative sample

BackgroundPrevious research suggests that parents of a child with Tourette Syndrome (TS) have lower self-concepts, higher caregiver burden, and more difficulties with home activities. However, the contributions of TS and mental, emotional, or behavioral (MEB) conditions to family functioning are difficult to identify from previous research due to relatively small TS sample sizes and high rates of co-occurring conditions within samples of children with TS.ObjectiveThe current study hypothesized that families of children with TS would report significantly more family functioning difficulties (more parenting aggravation, more difficulty with coping with the child's care, less parent–child communication, and less consistent family routines). Specifically, co-occurring conditions would contribute substantially to reported parenting aggravation.MethodParent-reported data from the 2007 National Survey of Children's Health were analyzed, including whether the child had been diagnosed with TS or an MEB. Weighted analyses were restricted to US children 6–17 years of age (n = 64,034) and adjusted for child age, sex, race and ethnicity.ResultsParents of children with TS were more likely to fall into the high parenting aggravation index category compared with parents of children without TS (aPR = 3.8, 95% CI: 2.2–6.6). Controlling for the co-occurring MEB conditions attenuated the relations between TS and parenting aggravation; however, a significant effect for TS remained in some cases.ConclusionParents of children with TS may face significant challenges in raising their children, leading to increased parenting aggravation; these challenges appear to be primarily associated with the presence of co-occurring MEB conditions.     

Paternal Identity,Maternal Gatekeeping,and Father Involvement*

Abstract: The purpose of this study was to examine whether mothers’ beliefs about the role of the father may contribute to mothers influencing the quantity of father involvement in their children's lives. Participants were 30 two‐parent families with children between the ages of 2 and 3 years. A combination of self‐report and interview data were collected from both mothers and fathers. Results from multiple regression analyses indicated that fathers’ perceived investments in their parental roles and actual levels of paternal involvement are moderated by mothers’ beliefs about the role of the father. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for future research on parenting identity and maternal gatekeeping as well as the development of parenting programs for fathers.     

A Longitudinal Study of the Relation Between Depressive Symptomatology and Parenting Practices

This longitudinal study examined whether mothers' depressive symptomatology predicted parenting practices in a sample of 199 mothers of 3‐year‐old children with behavior problems who were assessed yearly until age 6. Higher maternal depressive symptoms were associated with higher overreactivity and laxness and lower warmth when children were 6 years old. Higher maternal depressive symptoms were also related to increases in overreactivity across the preschool years. Moreover, depression and parenting practices (overreactivity and laxness) covaried over time within mothers. These results provide evidence of a strong link between maternal depression and parenting during the preschool years.     

Differences between adolescent and adult mothers of infants

Samples of adolescent and adult mothers of 6-month-old infants were compared on parenting knowledge, quality of stimulation in the home, and family involvement with the infant. Adolescents perceived that care-giving had less influence on infant outcome and they provided a lower quality of stimulation in the home environment than did adults. For both groups, greater knowledge was associated with higher quality of stimulation in the home. Adolescents were more likely to live with their own mother/grandmother, less likely to live with the infant's father, and more likely to live in larger households. The adolescent's infant was more likely to have daily involvement with the maternal grandmother. Approximately 50% of the fathers in both groups were involved on a daily basis. The fathers were involved to a greater extent if the mother of the infant was an adult. Services to adolescents with infants should include an assessment of family participation in infant care and provide support to the mother.     

Predictors of Enrollment and Retention in a Preventive Parenting Intervention for Divorced Families

Participation rates in parenting programs are typically low, severely limiting the public health significance of these interventions. We examined predictors of parenting program enrollment and retention in a sample of 325 divorced mothers. Predictors included intervention timing and maternal reports of child, parent, family, and sociocultural risk factors. In multivariate analyses, child maladjustment and family income-to-needs positively predicted enrollment, and higher maternal education and recruitment near the time of the divorce predicted retention. Findings have implications for the optimal timing of preventive parenting programs for divorcing families and point to the importance of examining predictors of enrollment and retention simultaneously. Editors’ Strategic Implications: Parent education researchers and practitioners may find the authors’ application of the Health Belief Model to be a useful organizing framework for improving engagement and retention.     

Maternal parenting stress and its correlates in families with a young child with cerebral palsy

Objective   To investigate factors predicting parenting stress in mothers of pre-school children with cerebral palsy.
Method   Eighty mothers and children participated. Mothers completed the Parenting Stress Index (PSI) and the following measures of family functioning: family support, family cohesion and adaptability, coping strategies, family needs and locus of control. Children were assessed using the Griffiths Scales and the Gross Motor Function measure. The child's home environment was assessed using Home Observation for Measuring the Environment.
Results   Mothers had higher mean total PSI scores than the means for the typical sample; 43% had total PSI scores above the threshold for clinical assessment. Cluster analysis demonstrated five distinct clusters of families, more than half of whom were coping well. High stress items were role restriction, isolation and poor spouse support, and having a child who was perceived as less adaptable and more demanding. Lower stress items indicated that this sample of mothers found their children emotionally reinforcing and had close emotional bonds. Regression analysis showed that the factors most strongly related to parenting stress levels were high family needs, low family adaptability and cognitive impairment in the child.
Conclusions   The results confirmed the individuality of families, and that individual characteristics of coping and feeling in control, together with family support and cohesion, are associated with variation in amount of stress experienced in parenting a child with cerebral palsy.     

Factors Related to Parenting Practices in Taiwan

The purpose of this study was to examine factors related to authoritative and authoritarian parenting practices in Chinese mothers with preschoolers. This study not only focused on the global parenting typologies ( e.g. authoritative and authoritarian parenting), but also looked into the individual component elements of authoritative and authoritarian parenting. Belsky's (1984) ecological model was used to select potential predictors of parenting practices: 1) characteristics of the mother, 2) characteristics of the child, and 3) contextual factors. The sample consisted of 463 mothers with their preschool children in Taiwan. Mothers were administered a questionnaire which assessed their parenting practices, Chinese parenting beliefs, depression level, degree of parenting daily hassles, child's age, perception of the child's temperament, and demographic information. As expected, maternal characteristics, child characteristics, and contextual factors predicted mothers' parenting practices. The results suggested that maternal depression, child temperament, and degree of parenting daily hassles might have cross-culturally universal influences on parenting practices. However, the significant influence of culturally specific parenting beliefs on parenting was also found. Chinese parents' use of authoritative and authoritarian parenting were both in some degree embedded in traditional Chinese parenting beliefs - the concept of training.     

The Association Between Fathers’ Self-assessment of Their Own Parenting and Mothers’ Recognition of Paternal Support: A Municipal-Based Cross-Sectional Study

BackgroundDiscrepancies between parents’ reports of paternal parenting have been gaining attention, but epidemiological evidence is scarce in Asia. This study aimed to clarify agreement/discrepancy between paternal and maternal recognition of paternal parenting and the association between actual paternal parenting time and background factors.MethodsData from couples whose children attended 4-month child health check-ups in Fukushima City were analyzed (N = 509). Based on paternal recognition of paternal parenting (PRPP) and maternal recognition of paternal support (MRPS), couples were classified into four groups. Each group’s paternal household work and parenting time were analyzed. Univariable and multivariable analysis were performed to investigate the association between agreement/discrepancy and background factors of children and parents.ResultsFrequency of positive agreement (PRPP+ and MRPS+) was 83.9%, whereas negative agreement (PRPP− and MRPS−) was 2.6%. As for discrepancy, PRPP+ and MRPS− was 8.4% and PRPP− and MRPS+ was 5.1%. Fathers’ total median parenting time was 2 (weekdays) and 6 (weekends) hours, and showed significant differences among the four groups. Multivariable analysis revealed that compared to positive agreement, maternal mental health condition and pregnancy intention were significantly associated with the discrepancy PRPP+ and MRPS−, paternal mental health condition and marital satisfaction with the discrepancy PRPP− and MRPS+, and maternal mental health condition with negative agreement.ConclusionsWe identified differences in parenting time and mental health characteristics among couples depending on agreement/discrepancy in recognition of paternal parenting. Assessing both parents’ profiles is necessary in clinical practice to promote paternal participation in childcare.Key words: father involvement, coparenting, family relations, parenting time     

Father involvement,couple relationship quality,and maternal Postpartum Depression: the role of ethnicity among low-income families

Objectives

Maternal postpartum depression (PPD) has been recognized as a serious and wide-spread mental health disorder that has long-term negative impacts on children’s cognitive, social, and emotional development. This study extends prior research by examining the associations among predictors of PPD, including two different facets of father involvement and couple relationship quality, with a focus on testing these pathways across ethnic groups.

Method

This study analyzed data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (FFCWS) including mothers’ baseline interviews and one-year follow-up data sets (n?=?2,794). Several models were tested using bootstrapping in structural equation modeling to explore the mediating paths and ethnic differences.

Results

This study found that father involvement in sharing childcare responsibility had direct effects on reducing mothers’ parenting stress and promoted maternal psychological adjustment, which was consistent across the three ethnic groups. The mediation pathways through couple relationship quality between father involvement (both father involvement in direct infant care and shared responsibilities) and PPD were detected significant for Black and white mothers.

Conclusions for Practice

This study provided empirical evidence that father involvement in infant care is critical for mothers’ perceived relationship quality. Maternal postpartum mental health may benefit from interventions and policies that encourage positive father engagement in infant care.