Diabetes care in remote northern Australian Indigenous communities

OBJECTIVE: To assess primary care processes and clinical characteristics of adults with diabetes in remote northern Australian Indigenous communities. DESIGN: Clinical audit from diabetes registers in 21 remote primary healthcare centres in the Torres Strait Health Service District (n = 921), three in Cape York, Queensland (n = 252), and three in the Northern Territory (n = 194), between September 2002 and February 2003. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander adults with diabetes who were receiving their routine diabetes care in these 27 centres. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Provision of regular checks for weight, blood pressure, glycaemia (HbA(1c)), proteinuria, lipid levels, renal function, eyes and feet, influenza and pneumococcal vaccination. Weight, blood pressure and glycaemic control. RESULTS: Most routine diabetes checks were delivered according to recommended schedules, except for eye and foot checks in the NT. There were uniformly high rates of appropriate treatment for hypertension and albuminuria, but low rates of insulin treatment and self-monitoring despite a high mean HbA(1c) level (8.9%). Vaccination rates were low in the NT. Torres Strait Islanders with diabetes were significantly heavier than Aboriginals, but had lower mean diastolic blood pressure (77.3 mmHg compared with 79.5 mmHg) and lower prevalence of albuminuria and smoking. CONCLUSION: A high proportion of Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders requiring treatment for high blood pressure and proteinuria are receiving it. However, there is dissonance between the relatively high rates of routine checks and apparent lack of therapeutic action on glycaemia. More intensive management of glycaemia, including improved nutrition, exercise and (probably) insulin, is required to reduce microvascular complications.     

General practice training in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health

This article reviews the history of general practice vocational training in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health, identifies current initiatives and recommends future approaches based on recent evidence. General practice vocational training in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health requires ongoing support and investment from governments and training and general practice organisations if the gains made to date are to be consolidated and health outcomes are to improve. In particular, investment in sustained and respectful partnerships with Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and organisations will continue to provide the groundwork for effective training of general practitioners in this critical health area, and will also play an important role in capacity-building in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities.     

Health of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in remote Far North Queensland: findings of the Paediatric Outreach Service

AIM: To describe the pattern of disease and other health problems in children living in remote Far North Queensland (FNQ). DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: Retrospective review of the FNQ Paediatric Outreach Service's Medical Director database for the period June 2001 to February 2006. Three subpopulations were compared: children from predominantly Aboriginal communities, predominantly Torres Strait Islander communities, and other communities. All children referred to the service during the study period were reviewed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Number of children seen and common diagnoses. RESULTS: 3562 children were referred during the study period, and a total of 3932 diagnoses were made; 56% of the paediatric population of the Aboriginal communities and 23% of the paediatric population of Torres Strait Islander communities were seen. Of 40 separate diseases/health problems reviewed, the three most common reasons for presentation were chronic suppurative otitis media, suspected child abuse and neglect, and failure to thrive. In the paediatric population of Aboriginal communities, the prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder was at least 15/1000 (1.5%), and in Torres Strait Islander children, rheumatic heart disease prevalence was at least 6/1000 (0.6%). Rheumatic fever rates were among the highest in Australia. CONCLUSION: Rates of preventable complex and chronic health problems in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in remote FNQ are alarmingly high. Areas requiring urgent public health intervention include alcohol-related conditions and rheumatic fever.     

Reform in Australian medical schools: a collaborative approach to realising Indigenous health potential

The Australian medical education system is at a critical juncture in relation to what and how it delivers for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health. Since 2004, three key organisations concerned with medical education have worked to provide a toolkit for implementation of sustainable reform within medical schools. The aim is a medical workforce trained in Indigenous health, and more Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander doctors, leading to better health for Australia's Indigenous peoples.     

Management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in remote-dwelling Aboriginals and Torres Strait Islanders: an update for primary healthcare providers

Chronic HBV infection is common in remote Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, where resources are scarce and patients may have several concurrent illnesses. The management of chronic HBV infection has changed over recent years, with greater application of serological and radiological investigations and new, more acceptable treatments for chronic liver disease, cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Optimal follow-up procedures for patients with chronic HBV infection are still being debated, but may not be applicable to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities where factors such as endemicity, remoteness, frequent comorbidities, shorter life expectancy and cultural differences in health priorities must be taken into consideration. We have defined an algorithm to assist primary care providers caring for patients with chronic HBV infection in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Patients are divided into one of three categories for follow-up and referral based on clinical features, and results of liver enzyme and serological tests.     

Overseas-trained doctors in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health services: many unanswered questions

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health services are heavily dependent on overseas-trained doctors (OTDs). These OTDs are increasingly from countries with variable English language and educational equivalency compared with locally trained doctors. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander health services create particular demands for all doctors, such as negotiating "cultural domains" and acknowledging the contribution of Aboriginal health workers. Little is known about the roles and experience of OTDs in health service provision in Indigenous communities. Barriers to effective research into the experience of OTDs include privacy legislation and a lack of standardised data. Researching the narratives of OTDs in Indigenous health services offers an opportunity to explore the diversity and complexity of the cultural interfaces in health service provision.     

How can Australia do better for Indigenous health?

Respect, tolerance and trust in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people are needed from government to improve the health and wellbeing of Indigenous Australians.     

超敏C反应蛋白与2型糖尿病住院患者胰岛素分泌指数及降糖方案关系的探讨

目的探讨超敏C反映蛋白（Hs-CRP）与2型糖尿病（T2DM）患者胰岛素β细胞及如何制定降糖方案之间的关系。方法选取112例T2DM患者,根据糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）水平分组：HbA1c〈7%组、HbAlc7%～9%组及HbAlc〉9%组,记录患者一般信息及并发症情况,检测血清Hs-CRP、空腹血糖（FBG）及HbA1c等各项指标,停用降糖治疗3 d后再次收集空腹血浆,检测空腹胰岛素水平,计算胰岛素分泌指数（Homa IS）。分别比较3组间Hs-CRP、FBG、体重指数（BMI）、Homa IS、腰臀水平。结果（1）HbA1c〉9%组的Hs-CRP、Homa IS较HbAlc〈7%组及HbAlc7%～9%组显著增高;（2）Homa IS与Hs-CRP、HbA1c存在负相关,吸烟患者在血糖严重未达标组比例较高;（3）以Hs-CRP的分组做应变量,将所有因子引入单因素Logistic回归分析,发现吸烟史及合并2种以上慢性病有意义,进一步行多元Logistic回归分析发现吸烟史和合并2种以上慢性病均为Hs-CRP增高的危险因素。结论 （1）Hs-CRP明显升高与血糖控制不达标相关,提示需更改治疗方案,而吸烟史是影响治疗效果的因素之一;（2）Hs-CRP可反应患者胰岛素分泌指数;（3）不能仅以患者空腹胰岛素水平制定降糖方案,应联合评估患者空腹胰岛素水平、hsCRP及Homa IS来制定治疗方案;（4）吸烟史以及T2DM合并2种以上慢性病与Hs-CRP升高相关,提示糖尿病合并多种慢性病时血糖管理更难达标。     

Our doctors making a difference

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander doctors walking in both worlds for the benefit of all Australians.     

Indigenous participation in the Australian Health Survey: a response

The Australian Health Survey will deliver key health measures for all Australian children and adults, and collect information across Australia. The Australian Bureau of Statistics has consulted widely on the development of the Survey, and has shaped the survey according to strong and consistent advice in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. It is hoped that this approach will maximise survey response rates and place us in good trust to embark on the next survey round.     

蚌埠市中青年人群未诊断糖尿病风险因素研究

目的探讨蚌埠市社区中青年人群未诊断糖尿病状况及其风险因素,为糖尿病早期发现、早期诊断及早期干预提供参考。方法自蚌埠市龙子湖区7个社区随机抽选1 424例无糖尿病史者作为研究对象,通过问卷调查、人体测量和实验室检测获取信息。空腹血糖≥7.0 mmol/L或糖化血红蛋白≥6.5%界定为未诊断糖尿病。结果共调查1 424例,未诊断糖尿病病人142例（10.0%）。多因素logistic回归分析显示,年龄增加、高血压病史、糖尿病家族史、腰围增加、肥胖、每日蔬菜摄入量少于400 g和每日不吃水果均是未诊断糖尿病的独立风险因素（P < 0.05~P < 0.01）。结论蚌埠市社区中青年人群未诊断糖尿病比例仍然较高,腰围、肥胖、吸烟、蔬菜和水果摄入量等个体可控制因素与其发生密切相关。     

2型糖尿病周围神经病变的危险因素分析

目的 探讨2型糖尿病周围神经病变(DPN)相关危险因素.方法 选取2014年1月至2015年12月在武汉市中心医院住院的2型糖尿病患者427例,分为DPN组(141例)和无DPN组(286例),比较两组各项临床指标,并进一步分析DPN发生的危险因素.结果 DPN组(141例)和无DPN组患者年龄[(61.45±9.39)岁vs(58.07±10.41)岁]、糖尿病病程[(8.64±5.79)年vs(6.93±5.63)年]、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)[(8.67±2.04)%vs(7.91±1.84)%]及空腹血糖水平[(9.84±3.97)mmol/L vs(8.67±3.21)mmol/L]、吸烟率[43例(30.5%)vs 45例(15.7%)]、糖尿病性视网膜病变(DR)的发生率[51例(36.2%)vs 64例(22.4%)]比较,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05).多元Logistic回归分析显示年龄、HbA1c、吸烟、合并DR为DPN发生的独立危险因素(P<0.05).结论 年龄、HbA1c、吸烟以及合并DR为导致DPN的主要危险因素.     

Diabetes mellitus prevalence in out-patient Marshallese adults on Ebeye Island, Republic of the Marshall Islands

The purpose of this study was to use a low-cost method of estimating prevalence of diabetes mellitus for a small island population receiving medical care from a single facility. A suitable sample of 692 (16.4%) from a total of 4,223 medical records of Ebeye Island Marshallese adult outpatients 30 or more years of age was reviewed in July and August 2000 for evidence of diabetes mellitus. Diagnosed diabetes was defined as having a diagnosis of diabetes noted in the chart. In patients without a diagnosis of diabetes, undiagnosed diabetes was defined as one fasting whole blood glucose > or = 70 mmol/l (126 mg/dl) or one random whole blood glucose > or = 11.1 mmol/l (200 mg/dl). Impaired fasting glucose was defined as one fasting whole blood glucose 6.1-7.0 mmol/l (110-125 mg/dl). For this population of adults 30 or more years in age, the crude prevalence of diabetes [diagnosed cases 13% (confidence interval, CI = 10-15%) and undiagnosed cases 6.9% (CI = 5.0-8.8%)] was 20% (CI = 17-23%). As the population of Ebeye is younger than the world population, adjustment to a standard world population gives an age-adjusted prevalence of diabetes in adults 30 or more years of age of 27%, and an age-adjusted prevalence in adults 20 or more years of age of 20%. In comparison, the crude prevalence of diagnosed and undiagnosed diabetes in the U.S. in adults 20 or more years of age is 8.3%, and the worldwide prevalence in adults 20 or more years of age is 4.0%. Limitations of our methodology include lack of randomization, lack of access to proper laboratory equipment, and passive case-finding, necessitating revision of standard diagnostic criteria. Prevalence rates of diabetes in Marshallese outpatients are thus significantly higher than US or worldwide rates. In addition, there are many cases of undiagnosed diabetes in the RMI. Recommended are a cross-sectional serosurvey of a large age- and gender-stratified population, increased resources to care for people with diabetes, and public health interventions to improve nutrition and facilitate physical activity in order to lower the prevalence of diabetes. The large-scale social forces that lead to diabetes need to be addressed accordingly.     

The upsurge of interest in Indigenous health in the 1950s and 1960s

During the 1950s and 1960s, there was a dramatic explosion in the number of letters to the editor about Indigenous health published in the MJA, reflecting increased reader interest. The letters from Barry Christophers were part of the Federal Council for Aboriginal Advancement's largely successful campaign for equal civil rights for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. His letters not only drew attention to discriminatory legislation and policies, but also emphasised the structural (especially economic) determinants of Indigenous ill-health, and the negative impact on Indigenous people of racist medical representations.     

老年人群糖化血红蛋白用于诊断糖调节异常的可行性研究

目的探讨老年人群中糖化血红蛋白（HbA1c）诊断糖尿病（DM）和糖调节异常（IGR）的理想切点及可行性。方法对北京万寿路社区老年人群（≥60岁）进行横断面流行病学调查,其中1 674人无糖尿病者行口服75g葡萄糖耐量试验（OGTT）,测定空腹血糖、2h血糖及HbA1c。采用受试者工作特征曲线（ROC曲线）进行判断,以OGTT诊断DM及IGR时的HbA1c值计算最佳切点。并与美国糖尿病协会（ADA）的糖尿病HbA1c诊断标准比较。结果按照1999年WHO的DM诊断标准,本研究人群中糖耐量正常（NGT）894例,空腹血糖受损（IFG）53例,糖耐量低减（IGT）369例,合并IFG＋IGT 87例,新诊断糖尿病（NDDM）271例。采用ROC曲线判断与OGTT诊断DM状态相关的HbA1c理想切点为5.9%,敏感性和特异性分别为80.1%和73.8%,曲线下面积0.832（95%CI 0.802-0.862）;与IGR状态相关的HbA1c理想切点为5.7%,敏感性和特异性分别为64.3%,60.9%,曲线下面积0.668（95%CI 0.638-0.698）。HbA1c≥5.9%作为糖尿病诊断标准与OGTT的符合率达75%,可确诊80.1%的NDDM（217例）,但包括17.3%的NGT（155例）和41.7%的IGR（212例）。按ADA HbA1c≥6.5%的标准,NDDM中的检出率只有39.1%（106例）,而特异性高仅涉及0.9%的NGT（8例）及4.5%的IGR（23例）。结论 HbA1c≥5.9%时应进一步行OGTT以明确是否患有糖尿病,≥6.5%时诊断糖尿病的特异性达到97.8%。HbA1c不适用于筛查IGR人群。     

The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the right to health: is Australia meeting its obligations to Aboriginal peoples?

There is evidence that Australia is not meeting its obligations to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples for their right to the "highest attainable standard" of health, required under the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR). Poor access to primary health care for Aboriginal peoples and substantial shortfalls in government spending to address this are in violation of the ICESCR. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples' share of the universal health coverage expenditure offered to all Australians is less per person than for other Australians. The failure to monitor the provision of mainstream health services to Aboriginal peoples and inequitable distribution of health facilities and services compound these violations. Equality in health between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians is achievable, but not until the shortfall in health services expenditure for Indigenous Australians is addressed.     

Diabetes in Australian aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

Type 2 diabetes arises from a complex and multifactorial set of factors, including genetic susceptibility, behaviour (including diet and exercise), early nutrition, obesity and psychosocial stress, leading to insulin resistance and pancreatic failure. These factors in turn are influenced by social and physical environmental factors. Each of these may be important determinants of the high prevalence and incidence of type 2 diabetes in Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Public health interventions for primary and secondary prevention need to recognize this complexity. Although a reduction in the prevalence of obesity or diabetes in the short-medium term is rarely if ever achieved, there are documented examples of community-based programs which have been effective in reducing the risk of developing type 2 diabetes and its cardiovascular complications. Such interventions need to be community-directed and appropriate to local circumstances in order to be effective.     

Ten-year incidence of diabetes in older Australians: the Blue Mountains Eye Study

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the incidence of diabetes and impaired fasting glucose (IFG), and increased risk associated with the metabolic syndrome, in a representative population-based sample of older Australians. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: The Blue Mountains Eye Study examined 3654 residents aged 49 + years (82.4% response rate) during 1992-1994, and re-examined 2335 (75.1% of survivors) during 1997-1999 and 1952 (75.6% of survivors) during 2002-2004; 2123 participants with normal blood glucose levels at baseline were considered at risk of developing incident diabetes. Main outcome measures: Incident diabetes (or IFG) was defined in participants at risk who were newly diagnosed by a physician during the follow-up or found to have a fasting blood glucose level >or= 7.0 mmol/L (or 5.6-6.9 mmol/L). Kaplan-Meier cumulative 10-year incidence was calculated. RESULTS: The overall 10-year incidence of diabetes and IFG was 9.3% and 15.8%, respectively. Participants with metabolic syndrome at baseline had a higher risk of incident diabetes than those without metabolic syndrome (29.2% v 8.6%). Baseline factors associated with incident diabetes were elevated fasting glucose level (adjusted odds ratio [OR], 4.5; 95% CI, 3.4-6.1 per mmol/L), obesity (OR, 2.0; 95% CI, 1.3-2.8), diabetes family history (OR, 1.7; 95% CI, 1.2-2.5), current smoking (OR, 1.6; 95% CI, 1.0-2.7) and high density lipoprotein cholesterol level < 1.0 mmol/L (OR, 2.4; 95% CI, 1.5-3.8). Similar baseline factors were associated with incident IFG. CONCLUSION: This population-based study provides data on the incidence of diabetes and IFG in an older, predominantly white population, and confirms that metabolic and lifestyle factors are major risk factors for diabetes.     

新发2型糖尿病患者睡眠时间与胰岛素抵抗的相关性

目的：探讨新发2型糖尿病患者睡眠时间与胰岛素抵抗的相关性。方法选取2014-2015年在我院内分泌代谢科住院的新发2型糖尿病患者72例,根据睡眠时间长短分为睡眠时间<6h/晚、6~8h/晚、>8h/晚三个组。记录并比较三组患者的一般情况、体质量指数(BMI)、糖化血红蛋白(HbA1c)、总胆固醇(TC)、甘油三酯(TG)、低密度脂蛋白(LDL)、高密度脂蛋白(HDL)、空腹血糖(FPG)、空腹胰岛素(FINS),以胰岛素抵抗指数(HOMA-IR)来评价胰岛素抵抗。结果在新发2型糖尿病中,与睡眠时间6~8 h/晚组相比,睡眠时间<6 h/晚组患者的BMI、腰围、收缩压(SBP)、舒张压(DBP)、TG、LDL、FPG、FINS、HOMA-IR、HbA1c等明显增高,HDL明显降低,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);与睡眠时间6~8 h/晚组相比,睡眠时间>8 h/晚组患者的BMI、腰围、TG、LDL、FPG、FINS、HOMA-IR、HbA1c明显增高,差异均有统计学意义(P<0.05);与睡眠时间<6 h/晚组相比,睡眠时间>8 h/晚组患者的SBP、DBP、LDL、FPG、FINS、HOMA-IR、HbA1c明显降低,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论睡眠时间不足或过长都有可能出现血脂、血糖、血压等的升高,导致代谢紊乱,加重胰岛素抵抗,尤其是睡眠时间不足影响更明显,可能是新发2型糖尿病的危险因素。