The capsid-spacer peptide 1 Gag processing intermediate is a dominant-negative inhibitor of HIV-1 maturation

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) maturation inhibitor bevirimat disrupts virus replication by inhibiting the cleavage of the capsid-spacer peptide 1 (CA-SP1) Gag processing intermediate to mature CA. The observation that bevirimat delays but does not completely block CA-SP1 processing suggests that the presence of uncleaved CA-SP1 may disrupt the maturation process in trans. In this study, we validate this hypothesis by using a genetic approach to demonstrate that a non-cleavable CA-SP1 mutant exerts a dominant-negative effect on maturation of wild-type HIV-1. In contrast, a mutant in which cleavage can occur internally within SP1 is significantly less potent as a dominant-negative inhibitor. We also show that bevirimat blocks processing at both the major CA-SP1 cleavage site and the internal site. These data underscore the importance of full CA-SP1 processing for HIV-1 maturation and highlight the therapeutic potential of inhibitors that target this Gag cleavage event.     

The Vpu-regulated endocytosis of HIV-1 Gag is clathrin-independent

Recent results by us and others have shown that the accessory protein Vpu determines plasma membrane versus endosomal accumulation of the HIV-1 core protein Gag and progeny virions in the HeLa model of HIV-1 infection, since Vpu suppresses endocytosis of cell surface-associated Gag. In this report, we used pulse-chase studies and subcellular fractionations to investigate endocytosis of newly synthesized Gag in HeLa H1 cells. The uptake of Gag in Delta Vpu-virus background was not blocked by inhibitors of clathrin-mediated endocytosis and macropinocytosis. The cholesterol-sequestering drug filipin inhibited the uptake, but only if the drug was applied before extensive multimerization of Gag had taken place. Thus, the uptake mechanism most likely is only indirectly dependent on cholesterol. Our results also indicated that targeting phenotype of Gag was different in confluent versus subconfluent cell cultures, which could perhaps explain some of the controversies in intracellular targeting of Gag.     

HIV-1 Nef stabilizes AP-1 on membranes without inducing ARF1-independent de novo attachment

HIV-1 Nef affects the trafficking of numerous cellular proteins to optimize viral replication and evade host defenses. The adaptor protein (AP) complexes, which form part of the cytoplasmic coat of endosomal vesicles, are key cellular co-factors for Nef. Nef binds these complexes and alters their physiologic cycle of attachment and release from membranes. Specifically, while AP-1 normally becomes cytosolic when attachment events are blocked by inhibition of the GTPase cycle of ADP-ribosylation factor-1 (ARF1), the complex remains membrane-associated in Nef-expressing cells. To investigate the mechanism of this effect, we used a permeabilized cell system to detect the de novo attachment of exogenous AP-1 to endosomal membranes. Nef did not mediate de novo attachment independently of ARF1, despite its ability to maintain the association of AP-1 with endosomal membranes when the activity of ARF1 was blocked. We conclude that Nef stabilizes AP complexes on endosomal membranes after ARF1-dependent attachment. This stabilization may facilitate coat formation and stimulate the trafficking of multiple cellular proteins.     

酵母表达的HIV-1中国株CN54 Gag蛋白的免疫原性研究

目的评价毕赤酵母表达的HIV-1中国株CN54 Gag蛋白在Balb／c小鼠诱导体液和细胞免疫的能力。方法利用重组Gag蛋白单独及与重组DNA或痘苗联合免疫Balb／c小鼠，检测小鼠产生的特异性结合抗体和IgG1／IgG2a，同时检测T淋巴细胞增殖反应和CTL反应。结果3个蛋白单独免疫组均能诱导小鼠产生抗体和T淋巴细胞增殖反应，其中不加佐剂的免疫组诱导免疫反应低于其它两组。但3组的CTL杀伤活性均不明显。重组蛋白和重组DNA及痘苗联合免疫均诱导产生了较好的体液和细胞免疫反应，而且重组痘苗初始免疫一蛋白加强免疫组还诱导产生了较强的CrL反应。结论酵母表达的HIV-1 Gag蛋白具有良好的免疫原性，在与重组DNA和痘苗疫苗联合使用时具有协同作用，能刺激动物产生更强的HIV-1特异性体液和细胞免疫反应。本研究为构建HIV-1蛋白疫苗和探讨各类疫苗的联合免疫方式提供了有价值的参考数据。     

Evolutionary gamut of in vivo Gag substitutions during early HIV-1 subtype C infection

Two analyses of HIV-1 subtype C Gag quasispecies were performed in a prospective cohort of 42 acutely and recently infected individuals by SGA on viral RNA/proviral DNA templates. First, in vivo Gag substitutions were assessed in relation to the HIV-1C consensus sequence, which revealed that 29.3% of detected amino acid substitutions can be classified as reversions to subtype consensus, 61.3% as forward substitutions from subtype consensus, and 9.3% as polymorphisms not associated with the subtype consensus sequence. Second, the proportion, dynamics, and relationships within individual pools of viral quasispecies were analyzed. Among reverse substitutions, 16.1% were minor, 11.0% transient, 13.6% dominant, and 59.2% fixed. In contrast, 31.6% of forward substitutions were minor, 59.3% transient, 3.8% dominant, and 5.3% fixed. The distinct patterns in the spectrum and dynamics of reverse and forward Gag substitutions suggest that these differences should be considered in HIV-1 evolutionary studies and analyses of viral mutational pathways.     

Characterization of Gag and Nef-specific ELISpot-based CTL responses in HIV-1 infected Indian individuals

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses to Gag have been most frequently linked to control of viremia whereas CTL responses to Nef have direct relationship with viral load. IFN-γ ELISpot assay was used to screen CTL responses at single peptide level directed at HIV-1 subtype C Gag and Nef proteins in 30 antiretroviral therapy naive HIV-1 infected Indian individuals. PBMCs from 73.3% and 90% of the study population showed response to Gag and Nef antigens, respectively. The magnitude of Gag-specific CTL responses was inversely correlated with plasma viral load (r = −0.45, P = 0.001), whereas magnitude of Nef-specific responses was directly correlated (r = 0.115). Thirteen immunodominant regions (6 in Gag, 7 in Nef) were identified in the current study. The identification of Gag and Nef-specific responses across HIV-1 infected Indian population and targeting epitopes from multiple immunodominant regions may provide useful insight into the designing of new immunotherapy and vaccines.     

Functional role of Alix in HIV-1 replication

Retroviral Gag proteins encode small peptide motifs known as late domains that promote the release of virions from infected cells by interacting directly with host cell factors. Three types of retroviral late domains, with core sequences P(T/S)AP, YPX_nL, and PPPY, have been identified. HIV-1 encodes a primary P(T/S)AP-type late domain and an apparently secondary late domain sequence of the YPX_nL type. The P(T/S)AP and YPX_nL motifs interact with the endosomal sorting factors Tsg101 and Alix, respectively. Although biochemical and structural studies support a direct binding between HIV-1 p6 and Alix, the physiological role of Alix in HIV-1 biology remains undefined. To elucidate the function of the p6–Alix interaction in HIV-1 replication, we introduced a series of mutations in the p6 Alix binding site and evaluated the effects on virus particle production and virus replication in a range of cell types, including physiologically relevant primary T cells and macrophages. We also examined the effects of the Alix binding site mutations on virion morphogenesis and single-cycle virus infectivity. We determined that the p6–Alix interaction plays an important role in HIV-1 replication and observed a particularly severe impact of Alix binding site mutations when they were combined with mutational inactivation of the Tsg101 binding site.     

The T12I mutation within the SP1 region of Gag restricts packaging of spliced viral RNA into human immunodeficiency virus type 1 with mutated RNA packaging signals and mutated nucleocapsid sequence

Specific packaging of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) RNA is attributable to the high affinity of nucleocapsid (NC) sequence of Gag for the cis-acting RNA packaging signals located within the 5' un-translated region (5' UTR). Interestingly, we have previously reported that the T12I mutation (named MP2) within SP1 of Gag prevented incorporation of spliced viral RNA into mutated viruses that lacked the stem-loop 1 (SL1) RNA element (also named dimerization initiation site, DIS), suggesting a role for the SP1 sequence in viral RNA packaging. In this study, we have further tested this activity of MP2 in the context of a variety of mutations that affect viral RNA incorporation. The results showed that MP2 was able to effectively restrict packaging of spliced viral RNA into viruses containing either NC mutations R10A and K11A or mutated 5' UTR sequence, such as DeltaGU3 that lacked the 112-GUCUGUUGUGUG-123 sequence of U5, D1 that was deleted of a 27 nt fragment immediately downstream of the primer binding site (PBS), Delta(306-325) that had the SL3 RNA element removed and MD2 that was missing the 328-GGAG-331 sequence. As a result, MP2 contributed increased infectivity to the related viruses. Therefore, the MP2 mutation demonstrates a distinct role in HIV-1 RNA packaging that is neither pertained to the specific viral RNA packaging signal nor to the NC sequence.     

Inhibition of HIV-1 expression by HIV-2

HIV-1 and HIV-2 are co-endemic in certain geographic areas. HIV-2 is more weakly pathogenic than HIV-1, and progression to AIDS occurs less frequently and over a longer period of time. Recent epidemiologic studies suggest that individuals infected with HIV-2 have a lower risk of HIV-1 infection. Both immune mechanisms and various modes of viral interference have been proposed to account for these results. Our findings, described in this paper, suggest that HIV-2 inhibits HIV-1 replication. To study the molecular interactions between HIV-1 and HIV-2, proviral clones were transfected alone or in combination into the human T cell line CEM. LTR-CAT indicator constructs were included for the purpose of monitoring viral promoter activity. Viral replication in transfected cells was monitored by p24 antigen capture assay of cell culture supernatants and Western blot analysis of cell extracts. HIV-2 inhibited HIV-1 replication as determined by intracellular and extracellular p24 antigen levels. Similar results were obtained with simultaneous virus infection using HIV-1 and HIV-2, rather than transfections of proviral DNA. Using cotransfection of HIV-1 and HIV-2 LTR indicator gene constructs, the mechanism of inhibition was found to be suppression of the HIV-1 LTR by HIV-2. The inhibitory effect of HIV-2 is not due to Tat-2, but appears to discriminate between the HIV-1 and HIV-2 LTRs based on differences in the Tat activation response element, TAR. These results suggest both a molecular mechanism for HIV-2 interference with HIV-1 replication and a potential molecular approach to therapy.     

Evaluation of Xpert HIV-1 Qual assay for resolution of HIV-1 infection in samples with negative or indeterminate Geenius HIV-1/2 results

BackgroundDiagnosis of HIV infection is a multistage algorithm. Following screening with 4^th generation combination immunoassay, confirmation of HIV infection is performed with an antibody assay that differentiates HIV-1 from HIV-2 infection. In the newly updated algorithm, samples that are nonreactive or indeterminate in the differentiation assay are to be tested with an HIV-1 nucleic acid amplification (NAAT) test for resolution. Xpert HIV-1 Qual is a new NAAT assay approved for the identification of HIV infection in whole and dried blood.ObjectivesTo assess the performance of Xpert HIV-1 Qual supplementary assay in resolving the clinical status of serum samples reactive by 4^th generation immunoassays and indeterminate or negative by Geenius HIV-1/2 confirmatory assay.Study designIn a retrospective study, samples from 97 individuals for whom the true HIV-1 status was already known (by follow-up samples) and which were negative or indeterminate by HIV-1/2 Geenius assay were tested with Xpert Qual HIV-1 assay.ResultsXpert Qual assay correctly classified all 97 samples from HIV-1 positive (n = 49) and negative (n = 48) individuals. The sensitivity and specificity of Xpert Qual when using the true HIV status as a reference were 100% (92.7–100% at 95% confidence interval [CI] and 92.6–100% at 95% CI, respectively).ConclusionsApplying Xpert Qual HIV-1 assay in the new HIV multi-stage diagnostic algorithm correctly classified 100% of HIV-1 infections including 49 from HIV-1 carriers who have not yet seroconverted. With this assay the total time required for acute HIV diagnosis could be significantly reduced.     

河南地区HIV-1毒株Gag基因抗原表位变异特征及准种特点研究

目的 探讨中国河南地区人免疫缺陷病毒Ⅰ型(HIV-1)毒株GAG蛋白抗原表位变异特征,并对其准种特点加以分析.方法 套式聚合酶链反应(Nested-PCR)扩增确认HIV阳性样本gagp17～p24基因区段并测序,PCR产物纯化后克隆,挑选克隆株鉴定为阳性后测序,以MEGA(version 3.0)等软件进行分析.结果 河南HIV毒株为B'亚型;gag基因p17区段抗原表位突变有E62G(55.80%),Y79F(48.90%),T84V(48.90%),144V(44.20%),gag基因p24区段抗原表位未见明显变异.结论 HIV-1 B'亚型毒株gag基因p17区段的4个抗原表位,存在较大变异,p24区段较为保守,适合抗原表位疫苗的研制.     

中国流行株HIV—1gag和hIL—2／hIL—6核酸疫苗构建与实验免疫研究

目的 探讨中国流行株ＨＩＶ－１ｇａｇ与ｈＩＬ－２／ｈＩＬ－６共表达重组核酸疫苗闰的免疫效果。方法 以核酸疫苗质粒ｐＩＲＥＳ１ｎｅｏ为表达载体,构建重组核酸疫苗质料ｐＩＲＥＳ１－ｇａｇ、ｐＩＲＥＳ１－ｇａｇ－ｈＩＬ－２、ｐＩＲＥＳ１－ｇａｇ－ｈＩＬ－６,通过间接免疫荧光试验、Ｄｏｔ－ＥＬＩＳＡ检测ｇａｇ／ｈＩＬ－２／ｈＩＬ－６基因的表达产物。另将此重组核酸疫苗质粒免疫Ｂａｌｂ／ｃ小鼠,进行淋巴细胞转化试验、ＣＤ４＾＋、ＣＤ８＾＋Ｔ淋巴细胞数量测定、细胞毒性Ｔ淋巴细胞（ＣＴＬ）特异性杀伤作用检测及血清抗体检测,结果 构建的重组质粒转染ＢＨＫ细胞后可表达目的基因,免疫小鼠后可有效地刺激淋巴细胞增殖、诱导特异性ＣＴＬ反应,当和ｈＩＬ－２／ｈＩＬ－６共表达时免疫效果更加显著。讨论 与Ｇａｇ蛋白共表达的ｈＩＬ－２／ｈＩＬ－     

Comparison of cervicovaginal humoral immunity in clinically asymptomatic (CDC Al and A2 category) patients with HIV-1 and HIV-2 infection

Paired sera and cervicovaginal secretions (CVS) from 11 HIV-1- and 11 HIV-2-infected women, all clinically asymptomatic (CDC A1 and A2 categories), were analyzed for total IgG, IgA, albumin (HSA), IgG, and IgA antibodies toenvencoded surface glycoproteins of HIV-1 (gp160) and of HIV-2 (gp105), by comparison to 15 age-matched healthy controls. Secretion rates of IgG and IgA into CVS were evaluated by calculation of their relative coefficients of excretion (RCE) by reference to HSA. Cervicovaginal production of anti-HIV antibodies was evaluated by comparison between specific antibody activities of IgG and of IgA to HIV in CVS and in sera. In HIV-1-infected women, total IgG and IgA in CVS were, respectively, 6- and 4-fold increased, whereas the secretion rate of total IgG was 2.1-fold increased and that of total IgA was 2.5-fold reduced. In contrast, total IgG and IgA as well as their secretion rates were normal in HIV-2-infected women. In HIV-1- but not in HIV-2-infected women, HSA levels in cervicovaginal washings were twofold increased, demonstrating alteration of the mucosal barrier in HIV-1 infection. In HIV-1-infected patients, IgG and IgA to gpl60 were detected in all sera and CVS. In HIV-2-infected patients, IgG to gp105 was detected in all sera and CVS, whereas IgA to gp105 could be detected in only half of sera and one-third of CVS. Cross-reactivity by IgG and/or IgA to HIV-1 or HIV-2 against the surface glycoprotein of the other HIV type was observed in sera as well as in CVS, and more frequently in HIV-2- than in HIV-1-infected women. Finally, the mean specific activities of IgG and of IgA to gp160 or gp105 were higher in CVS than in sera, evidencing a possible local synthesis of both isotypes in HIV-1 as well as in HIV-2 infections. As early as the asymptomatic stages, HIV-1 affects the cervicovaginal mucosa more than HIV-2 does, suggesting higher viral replication within the female genital tract in HIV-1 infection than in HIV-2 infection.     

Evaluation of supplemental testing with the Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test and APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay to resolve specimens with indeterminate or negative HIV-1 Western blots

BackgroundThe use of Western blot (WB) as a supplemental test after reactive sensitive initial assays can lead to inconclusive or misclassified HIV test results, delaying diagnosis.ObjectiveTo determine the proportion of specimens reactive by immunoassay (IA) but indeterminate or negative by WB that could be resolved by alternative supplemental tests recommended under a new HIV diagnostic testing algorithm.Study designRemnant HIV diagnostic specimens that were reactive on 3rd generation HIV-1/2 IA and either negative or indeterminate by HIV-1 WB from 11 health departments were tested with the Bio-Rad Multispot HIV-1/HIV-2 Rapid Test (Multispot) and the Gen-Probe APTIMA HIV-1 RNA Qualitative Assay (APTIMA).ResultsAccording to the new testing algorithm, 512 (89.8%) specimens were HIV-negative, 55 (9.6%) were HIV-1 positive (including 19 [3.3%] that were acute HIV-1 and 9 [1.6%] that were positive for HIV-1 by Multispot but APTIMA-negative), 2 (0.4%) were HIV-2 positive, and 1 (0.2%) was HIV-positive, type undifferentiated. 47 (21.4%) of the 220 WB-indeterminate and 8 (2.3%) of the 350 WB-negative specimens were HIV-1 positive.ConclusionApplying the new HIV diagnostic algorithm retrospectively to WB-negative and indeterminate specimens, the HIV infection status could be established for nearly all of the specimens. IA-reactive HIV-infected persons with WB-negative results had been previously misclassified as uninfected, and HIV diagnosis was delayed for those with WB-indeterminate specimens. These findings underscore the limitations of the WB to confirm HIV infection after reactive results from contemporary 3rd or 4th generation IAs that can detect HIV antibodies several weeks sooner than the WB.     

Gag–Pol Region Determines the Tropism of SIVagm for Human Cells

Simian immunodeficiency virus isolated from African green monkeys (SIVagm) does not grow in many of human cell lines such as CEM×174, H9, and MT-4, but could replicate in some human cell lines. Sequence of SIVagm responsible for its narrow host range was determined by making and monitoring growth potential of chimeric clones between SIVagm and human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1). The results obtained indicated that the gag–pol region determines the observed narrow host range. By monitoring virus DNA synthesis and progeny virion production, the defect(s) of SIVagm in the replication in the restricted cells was demonstrated to be located at early phase. This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Clonotypic architecture of a Gag-specific CD8+ T-cell response in chronic human HIV-2 infection

The dynamics of T-cell receptor (TCR)selection in chronic HIV-1 infection, and its association with clinical outcome, is well documented for an array of MHC-peptide complexes and disease stages. However, the factors that may contribute to the selection and expansion of CD8+ T-cells in chronic HIV-2 infection, especially at the clonal level remain unclear. To address this question, we undertook a detailed molecular characterization of the clonotypic architecture of an HLA-B*3501 restricted Gag-specific CD8+ T-cell response in donors chronically infected with HIV-2 using a combination of flow cytometry, tetramer-specific CD8+ TCR clonotyping, and in vitro assays. We show that the response to the NY9 epitope is hierarchical and narrow in terms of T-cell receptor-alpha (TCRA) and -beta (TCRB) gene usage yet clonotypically diverse. Furthermore, clonotypic dominance in shared origin CTL clones was associated with a greater magnitude of cytokine production and antigen sensitivity at limiting antigen dilution as well as enhanced cross-reactivity for known HIV-2 variants. Hence, our data suggest that effector mobilization and expansion in human chronic HIV-2 infection may be linked to the qualitative features of specific CD8+ T-cell clonotypes, which could have implications for viral control and disease outcome.