Subjective anxiety and behavioral avoidance: Gender,gender role,and perceived confirmability of self-report

Commonly reported gender effects for differential vulnerability for anxiety may relate to gender socialization processes. The present study examined the relationship between gender role and fear under experimental conditions designed to elicit accurate fear reporting. Undergraduate students (N = 119) completed several self-report measures and a behavioral avoidance task (BAT) with a tarantula while wearing a heart rate monitor. Gender roles were operationalized as instrumentality and expressiveness, as measured by the Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Spence, Helmreich, & Stapp, 1975). As expected, women reported greater subjective anxiety and were more avoidant of the tarantula than men. Regardless of gender, low levels of instrumentality were associated with greater avoidance of the tarantula. The hypothesis that men underreport fear compared to women and that gender role differences underlie this reporting bias was not supported. In spite of a ceiling effect on the BAT, results of this study confirm the relevance of gender role in understanding gender effects in fear and anxiety.     

Risk-Taking Propensity in Older Adolescents: Internalizing Symptoms,Gender, and Negative Reinforcement

Objective: Engagement in risk behaviors, including substance use, risky sex, and violence, tends to increase throughout adolescence into young adulthood. One motivational process that may underlie risk behaviors during adolescence is negative reinforcement. Moreover, gender and internalizing symptoms (e.g., depression and anxiety) may both convey risk for negative reinforcement–based risk taking. Along these lines, the aims of the current study were to (a) examine gender differences in negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity and (b) examine internalizing symptoms as a moderator of the relationship between gender and negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity. Method: Participants included 103 youth between the ages of 18 and 21 (50.49% female, age M(SD) = 19.41(1.06)) who were recruited from a large Mid-Atlantic university between September 2013 and November 2014. Participants completed self-report assessments of internalizing symptomatology and a computerized behavioral analog assessment of negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity. Results: Results indicated that, overall, female older adolescents were riskier under conditions of negative reinforcement than male older adolescents. In addition, internalizing symptoms significantly moderated the relationship between gender and negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity such that the relationship between gender and negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity was nonsignificant at high levels of internalizing symptoms, and female gender was significantly positively predictive of heightened negative reinforcement–based risk-taking propensity at low levels of internalizing symptoms. Conclusions: Thus, although female youth overall were riskier, the predictive utility of gender for negative reinforcement–based risk taking may be most relevant at low levels of internalizing symptoms. Results are discussed in terms of implications for future prevention and intervention.     

Gender,personality, and serotonin-2A receptor binding in healthy subjects

The vulnerability to mood disorders, impulsive-aggression, eating disorders, and suicidal behavior varies greatly with gender, and may reflect gender differences in central serotonergic function. We investigated the relationships of gender, mood, impulsivity, aggression and temperament to 5HT_2A receptor binding in 21 healthy subjects using [¹⁸F]altanserin and PET neuroimaging. Binding potentials in pre-defined regions-of-interest (ROI) were calculated using the Logan graphical method, corrected for partial volume effects, and compared by gender with age co-varied. SPM analysis was used for voxel level comparisons. Altanserin binding (BP_P) was greater in male than female subjects in the following nine ROIs: hippocampus (HIP) and Lt. HIP, lateral orbital frontal cortex (LOF) and Lt.LOF, left medial frontal cortex (Lt.MFC), left medial temporal cortex (Lt. MTC), left occipital cortex (Lt. OCC), thalamus (THL) and Lt. THL. Differences in Lt. HIP and Lt. MTL remained significant after Bonferroni correction. Gender differences were noted in the co-variation of psychological traits with BP_P values in specific ROIs. Among males alone, aggression was negatively correlated with BP_P values in Lt. LOF and Lt. MFC, and Suspiciousness positively correlated in LOF, Lt. LOF and Lt. MFC. Among female subjects alone, Negativism was positively correlated with BP_P values in HIP, and Verbal Hostility in Lt. HIP. Altanserin binding in Lt. MTC was positively correlated with Persistence, with no significant gender effect. Gender differences in 5HT_2A receptor function in specific ROIs may mediate expression of psychological characteristics such as aggression, suspiciousness and negativism. Future studies of 5HT_2A receptor function and its relationship to behavior should control for gender.     

Sex, gender role orientation, gender role attitudes and suicidal thoughts in three generations

Background Suicide and other suicidal behaviours are markedly (though differently) patterned by gender. The increase in young male suicide rates in many countries has heightened interest in whether suicidal behaviours and ideation (thoughts) are related to masculinity. Relatively little research has explored the relationship between gender role attitudes and orientation and suicidal behaviours and ideation. Most research in this area has been conducted with young people. Objective We investigated whether gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores) and gender role attitudes were related to the reporting of serious suicidal thoughts in three generations (early adulthood, and early and late middle age) in a community sample. Methods Subjects (653 men and women aged around 23 years, 754 aged around 43 years, 722 aged around 63 years) completed home interviews with nurses as part of an ongoing longitudinal community-based study of social factors and health. These included measures of suicidal ideation (thoughts), attitudes to traditional gender roles, and a validated measure of gender role orientation (masculinity and femininity scores). Results The prevalence of serious suicidal thoughts was higher in early adulthood (10% men, 15% women) than in early (4% men, 8% women) and late (6% men, 5% women) middle age. In early adulthood only sex was significantly related to suicidal thoughts, with women at higher risk (adjusted OR 1.74, 95% CI 1.01–3.00). In early middle age masculinity scores were negatively related to suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR for each unit increase in score 0.65: 95% CI 0.46–0.93), and more traditional views on gender roles were positively associated with suicidal thoughts (adjusted OR 1.48: 95% CI 1.07–2.04). In late middle age trends were in the same direction as in early middle age, but were not statistically significant. Femininity scores were unrelated to serious suicidal thoughts at any age. Conclusion The high rates of suicidal thoughts amongst men and women in early adulthood point to the importance of understanding mental health problems at this age. The results raise a number of questions and suggest that suicide researchers should pay more attention to gender roles and attitudes in older adults. Ethical approval was obtained from the Glasgow University ethics committee for non clinical research involving human subjects. Funding: the Twenty–07 study is funded by the Medical Research Council of Great Britain. KH, HS and MK are employed by the MRC.     

Gender differences in the effects of childhood adversity on alcohol,drug, and polysubstance-related disorders

Purpose

To examine gender differences in the associations between childhood adversity and different types of substance use disorders and whether gender moderates these relationships.

Methods

We analyzed data from 19,209 women and 13,898 men as provided by Wave 2 (2004–2005) of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) to examine whether gender moderates the associations between childhood adversity and DSM-IV defined lifetime occurrence of alcohol, drug, and polysubstance-related disorders. We used multinomial logistic regression, weighted to be representative of the US adult civilian, noninstitutionalized population, and we calculated predicted probabilities by gender, controlling for covariates. To test which specific moderation contrasts were statistically significant, we conducted pair-wise comparisons corrected for multiple comparisons using Bonferroni’s method.

Results

For each type of substance use disorder, risk was increased by more exposure to childhood adversity, and women had a lower risk than men. However, moderation effects revealed that with more experiences of childhood adversity, the gender gap in predicted probability for a disorder narrowed in relation to alcohol, it converged in relation to drugs such that risk among women surpassed that among men, and it widened in relation to polysubstances.

Conclusions

Knowledge regarding substance-specific gender differences associated with childhood adversity exposure can inform evidence-based treatments. It may also be useful for shaping other types of gender-sensitive public health initiatives to ameliorate or prevent different types of substance use disorders.

     

Latino adolescents' academic success: the role of discrimination, academic motivation, and gender

Guided by the academic resilience perspective, the current longitudinal study examined whether academic motivation mediated the relation between Latino adolescents' (N = 221) experiences with discrimination and their academic success. The potential moderating role of gender was also examined. Using multiple group analysis in structural equation modeling, findings indicated that perceived discrimination at Wave 2 significantly predicted academic motivation at Waves 2 and 3 for boys but not girls. Additionally, for boys, academic motivation significantly mediated the relation between perceived discrimination and academic success. Findings underscore the importance of considering the long-term implications of discrimination for Latino boys' academic success. Furthermore, findings encourage moving beyond the examination of gender differences in specific academic outcomes (e.g., academic success) and focusing on how the processes leading to academic success vary by gender.     

Children's Reasons for Living,Self-esteem,and Violence

Attitudes toward violence and reasons for living in young adolescents with high, moderate, and low self-esteem were examined. The authors devised an Attitudes Toward Violence questionnaire; the Rosenberg's Self-esteem Scale (RSE) and the Brief Reasons for Living in Adolescents (BRFL-A) was used to assess adaptive characteristics. The independent variables were gender and self-esteem. The dependent variables were total Reasons for Living score and Attitudes Toward Violence score. Participants included 138 boys and 95 girls, ages 11 to 15 years (M = 13.3) from a city middle school. The results showed that for the dependent variable attitudes toward violence, main effects were found for both gender and self-esteem. For the dependent variable reasons for living, a main effect was found for self-esteem but not for gender. An inverse relationship was found between violence and reasons for living. Being male and low self-esteem emerged as predictors of more accepting attitudes toward violence. Low self-esteem was significantly related to fewer reasons for living.     

Gender, gender roles, and anxiety: perceived confirmability of self report, behavioral avoidance, and physiological reactivity

Despite the well-documented gender effect in anxiety, less is known about contributing factors to women's greater risk for anxiety and fears. The present study examined the relationship between gender, gender role orientation (i.e., expressivity/instrumentality) and fear of harmless insects (tarantula), using a multimodal approach of self-report measures, a Behavioral Approach Test (BAT), and physiological reactivity. Participants (144 college students; 67 women, 77 men) completed a questionnaire packet and then were instructed to approach a tarantula. We were unable to replicate Pierce and Kirkpatrick's (1992) findings that men underreport anxiety. Consistent with the literature, women in the study experienced greater anxiety and avoidance compared to men. However, men and women did not differ on physiological reactivity during the first 2 min of the BAT. The concordance across avoidance, anxiety and heart rate reactivity differed by gender, suggesting that men and women have different experiences when faced with a fearful object. Furthermore, instrumentality (masculinity) was negatively related to anticipatory anxiety for women but not for men.     

Factorial Structure of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in Japan: A Study of Cultural, Developmental, and Gender Influences

This study explored the factorial structure of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) in the Japanese population. Several differences between the structure model in the current study and Parker et al.’s original model were identified. We also examined the adaptability of the inventory to children currently being raised by parents. We also developed a structural equation model that takes into account the impacts of the respondents’ generation and gender and the caregivers’ gender. The cultural, developmental, generational, and gender influences on the factorial structure of the PBI as well as the implications for clinical settings were discussed.     

The effects of age, gender, and body mass index on amplitude of sensory nerve action potentials: Multivariate analyses

ObjectivePrevious studies have shown that age, gender, and body mass index (BMI) affect amplitude of sensory nerve action potentials (SNAP), but the total effects of multiple factors or the most prominently affected nerves have not been elucidated. This study systematically investigated effects of these factors.MethodsAmplitude of SNAP of the median, ulnar, superficial radial, superficial peroneal, and sural nerves was measured in 105 healthy subjects. The effects of age, gender, and BMI on each nerve were estimated by multivariate linear regression analysis.ResultsSNAP amplitude decreased with age in all five nerves. Women had greater SNAP amplitude than men in the upper limb nerves (median, ulnar, and radial), but not in the lower limb nerves (peroneal and sural). Similarly, greater BMI was associated with smaller amplitudes in the upper limb nerves, but not in the lower limb nerves. Multivariate analyses showed the three factors explained 50% of the variation in the median nerve, 46% in the ulnar nerve, and 22–32% in the remaining nerves.ConclusionsThe effects of age, gender, and BMI on SNAP amplitudes are not identical in different sensory nerves. Age was strongly correlated with SNAP amplitude in the nerves tested, whereas gender and BMI affect amplitudes only in the upper limb nerves.SignificanceAge, gender, and BMI should be taken into account in clinical practice, but the extent of influence depends on the sensory nerves examined.     

Sex, gender, and neuropsychological functioning in schizophrenia

Sex and gender represent substantially different concepts. While there are consistent sex differences reported on selected neuropsychological tasks, there is no systematic literature on comparable gender differences. We examined sex and gender effects on seven domains of neuropsychological functioning among 197 schizophrenia/schizoaffective patients and 94 healthy individuals. We found main effects of sex on two neuropsychological domains, main effects of gender on five neuropsychological domains, and no interaction effects on any of the domains. Healthy individuals performed better than individuals with schizophrenia/schizoaffective disorder. Executive functioning was unaffected by sex or gender, supporting its role as a behavioral marker of schizophrenia.     

Developmental,gender, and ethnic group differences in moods and ambulatory blood pressure in adolescents

Background: Adolescence is characterized by profound changes in physical, psychological, and social functioning thought to be accompanied by intense and varying moods.Purpose: Within a psychophysiological framework, this study examined the prevalence of 12 self-reported mood states of adolescents; investigated associations between specific mood states and ambulatory blood pressure readings; and explored effects of interactions among moods, gender, ethnic group, and maturation on ambulatory blood pressures.Methods: The sample included 371 African American, European American, and Hispanic American adolescents 11 to 16 years old. Systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressures were measured every 30 min with an ambulatory monitor and were synchronized with electronic activity monitoring and moods self-recorded during waking hours in a checklist diary.Results: Moods differed significantly by gender, ethnic group, and maturation. Controlling for height, maturation, gender, ethnic group, mother’s education, position, location, activity, other moods, and interactions of moods with other variables in a multilevel, random coefficients regression model, both positive and negative mood states were associated with higher levels of SBP and DBP; being relaxed or bored, or having a feeling of accomplishing things were associated with lower SBP and DBP. There were significant interaction effects of moods with physical maturity, gender, and ethnic group on ambulatory SBP and DBP.Conclusions: Further study of the modifying effects of gender, ethnic group, and stage of development on reports of moods, and their associations with cardiovascular responses is recommended. This study was funded by the National Institute of Nursing Research NR03052.We thank Thong Nguyen for data management and Candace Ayars, Brenda Binder, Lisa Brown, Danielle Ellsworth, Lisa Reyes, Dee Stonebreaker, Shelley Swafford, and AmyWoll for data collection.     

Effects of gender difference and birth order on perceived parenting styles, measured by the EMBU scale, in Japanese two-sibling subjects

The relationship between Egna Minnen av Barndoms Uppforstran (EMBU) scaling and gender, birth order and parents' gender was previously investigated in a large volunteer sample; significant interactions among the variables were found. In the present study, 730 Japanese volunteers with one sibling were used as subjects in order to control the number of siblings: the effect of gender of subjects and siblings and birth order on the perceived parenting style was examined. Based on gender and birth orders, 730 subjects were grouped into the following categories: (i) male with a younger brother; (ii) male with a younger sister; (iii) male with an older brother; (iv) male with an older sister; (v) female with a younger brother; (vi) female with a younger sister; (vii) female with an older brother; and (viii) female with an older sister. One-way ANOVA was performed with each EMBU subscale used as a dependent variable and these eight groups as independent variables. The scores for rejection and emotional warmth of father were influenced significantly by the pattern of siblings (P<0.006 and P<0.0012, respectively), and scores for emotional warmth of mother were influenced significantly by the pattern of siblings (P<0.0012). The elder male children strongly experienced parenting style as more rejecting than others, and female children (elder sisters with brother, or younger sisters with sister) recognized parenting style as more caring and demonstrated more warmth than others. The results confirmed a significant interaction of gender of subjects and siblings and birth order of perceived parental rearing behavior.     

Practice parameter on gay, lesbian, or bisexual sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and gender discordance in children and adolescents

Children and adolescents who are growing up gay, lesbian, bisexual, gender nonconforming, or gender discordant experience unique developmental challenges. They are at risk for certain mental health problems, many of which are significantly correlated with stigma and prejudice. Mental health professionals have an important role to play in fostering healthy development in this population. Influences on sexual orientation, gender nonconformity, and gender discordance, and their developmental relationships to each other, are reviewed. Practice principles and related issues of cultural competence, research needs, and ethics are discussed.     

Complex Interaction Between Symptoms,Social Factors,and Gender in Social Functioning in a Community-Dwelling Sample of Schizophrenia

Social functioning (SF) is the ultimate target aimed in treatment plans in schizophrenia, thus it is critical to know what are the factors that determine SF. Gender is a well-established variable influencing SF, yet it is not known how social variables and symptoms interact in schizophrenia patients. Furthermore, it remains unclear whether the interaction between social variables and symptoms is different in men compared to women. Our aim is to test whether social variables are better predictors of SF in community-dwelled individuals with schizophrenia, and whether men and women differ in how symptoms and social variables interact to impact SF. Community-dwelling individuals with schizophrenia (N = 231) were randomly selected from a register. Participants were assessed with symptom measures (PANSS), performance-based social scale (LSP), objective social and demographic variables. Stratification by gender and stepwise multivariate regression analyses by gender were used to find the best-fitting models that predict SF in both gender. Men had poorer SF than women in spite of showing similar symptom scores. On stepwise regression analyses, gender was the main variable explaining SF, with a significant contribution by disorganized and excitatory symptoms. Age of onset made a less marked, yet significant, contribution to explain SF. When the sample was stratified by gender, disorganized symptoms and ‘Income’ variable entered the model and accounted for a 30.8% of the SF variance in women. On the other hand, positive and disorganized symptoms entered the model and accounted for a 36.1% of the SF variance in men. Community-dwelling men and women with schizophrenia differ in the constellation of variables associated with SF. Symptom scores still account for most of the variance in SF in both genders.     

Social inequality and alcohol consumption-abuse in Bahia, Brazil

Abstract Background This paper reports findings on Alcohol Consumption-Abuse (ACAb) in Bahia, Brazil, a research setting characterized by racial/ethnic and socioeconomic diversity. Methods A household survey was conducted with a sample of 2,302 adults. ACAb was defined as daily intake of more than two units of beverage, with drunkenness, or weekly binge drinking plus episodes of drunkenness, or any use of alcoholic beverages with frequent drunkenness, with failed attempts to stop drinking. Results The rate of 12-month prevalence was 7%, with an overall male: female ratio of 6:1. A positive association of ACAb prevalence with education and social class was found. Male gender and higher socio-economic status were associated with increased odds of ACAb. No relationship was found between ethnicity and ACAb. Stratified analysis yielded consistent gender effects, throughout all strata of independent variables. A strong interaction of gender (male) and social class (upper class) was found for Mulattos and Morenos (maximum Prevalence rate = 9.04). Conclusion Interaction patterns found defy simple generalizations based on class, ethnicity, and gender considered alone.     

Industrialization Stresses, Alcohol Abuse & Substance Dependence: Differential Gender Effects in a Kenyan Rural Farming Community

Developing countries’ industrialization and urbanization attempts have been linked to psychological distress and alcohol abuse. We used Hobfoll’s COR theory to examine the relationship between gender, perceived resource loss (an indicator of industrialization stress), and alcohol abuse and dependence in a sample of Kenyan rural village men and women (N?=?186). Regression analyses indicated that both gender and COR loss predicted alcohol abuse and dependence. Additionally, results suggested that gender moderated the relationship between COR loss and alcohol dependence; such that higher COR loss scores predicted higher alcohol dependence for men, but COR loss scores did not predict alcohol dependence for women. Thus, we suggest that gender differences in substance abuse may be due less to actual differences in resource loss, but rather to gender differences in the response to resource loss. Limitations and opportunities for future research are discussed.     

Gender role, eating disorder symptoms, and body image concern in ballet dancers

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to evaluate the relationships between gender role, eating behavior, and body image in nonprofessional female ballet dancers. METHODS: One hundred ten female ballet dancers and 59 controls were administered the Bem Sex Role Inventory, the Eating Disorder Examination (EDE), the Body Uneasiness Test (BUT), and the Beck Depression Inventory. RESULTS: Ballet dancers scored higher than controls in most of the items evaluating body image and eating behaviors; a high number of ballet dancers with undifferentiated gender role were also observed. In the dancers group, male-typified subjects showed higher median scores of EDE and BUT scales, while in the control group, the highest median scores of EDE and BUT scales were found in undifferentiated subjects. CONCLUSION: Ballet schools' cultural pressure towards an ideal of leanness could interfere with the process of gender role acquisition. Ballet dancers appear to be overconcerned with performance; this could reinforce the internalization of several constructs that are generally considered as typically male.     

Heteronormativity, school climates, and perceived safety for gender nonconforming peers

Students' perceptions of their school climates are associated with psychosocial and academic adjustment. The present study examined the role of school strategies to promote safety in predicting students' perceptions of safety for gender nonconforming peers among 1415 students in 28 high schools. Using multilevel modeling techniques, we examined student- and school-level effects on students' perceptions of safety for gender nonconforming peers. We found that older students, bisexual youth, Latino youth, and youth who experienced school violence perceived their gender nonconforming male peers to be less safe. Similarly, we found that older students and students who experienced school violence and harassment due to gender nonconformity perceived their gender nonconforming female peers to be less safe. At the school-level, we found that when schools included lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer (LGBTQ) issues in the curriculum and had a Gay-Straight Alliance, students perceived their schools as safer for gender nonconforming male peers.     

Leukocyte telomere length: Effects of schizophrenia,age, and gender

BackgroundSchizophrenia is linked with early medical comorbidity and mortality. These observations indicate possible “accelerated biological aging” in schizophrenia, although prior findings are mixed, and few such studies have examined the role of gender. One putative marker of biological aging is leukocyte telomere length (LTL), which typically shortens with age.MethodsWe assessed LTL in phenotypically well characterized 134 individuals with schizophrenia (60 women and 74 men) and 123 healthy comparison subjects (HCs) (66 women and 57 men), aged 26 to 65 years.ResultsOverall, LTL was inversely associated with age (t(249) = -6.2, p < 0.001), and a gender effect on the rate of LTL decrease with age was found (t(249) = 2.20, p = 0.029), with men declining more rapidly than women. No significant overall effect of diagnosis on the rate of decline was detected. However, at the average sample age (48 years), there was a significant gender effect in both schizophrenia and HC groups (t(249) = 2.48, p = 0.014), with women having longer LTL than men, and a significant gender X diagnosis effect (t(249) = 2.43, p = 0.016) - at the average sample age, women with schizophrenia had shorter LTL than HC women.DiscussionGender, not the diagnosis of schizophrenia, was the major factor involved with LTL shortening across the age range studied. We discuss the constraints of a cross-sectional design and other methodological issues, and indicate future directions. Understanding the impact of schizophrenia on biological aging will require separate evaluations in men and women.