Community violence and posttraumatic stress disorder symptoms in urban youth: The moderating influence of friend and parent support

Separate lines of research have demonstrated that community violence predicts posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in youth and that social support is one protective factor against the development of PTSD symptoms. The current study sought to examine the associations between primary and secondary exposure to community violence and the moderating role of parent and friend support on these relations. Participants were 96 urban youths (aged 6–17 years; 58.4% racial/ethnic minority; 51% female) and a caregiver recruited from a university mental health clinic. Results indicated that both primary and secondary exposure to community violence predicted PTSD symptoms. Friend support, but not parent support, moderated the association between primary, but not secondary, exposure to community violence and PTSD symptoms. The findings suggest that friend support is a salient protective factor for urban youth who may be at risk of PTSD symptoms due to exposure to community violence.     

Protective Factors for Youth Exposed to Violence in Their Communities: A Review of Family,School, and Community Moderators

This review provides a comprehensive investigation of the pattern and strength of findings in the literature regarding the environmental moderators of the relationship between exposure to community violence and mental health among children and adolescents. Twenty-nine studies met criteria for inclusion in our analysis of family, school, and community variables as moderators. Dependent variables included internalizing (e.g., anxiety, depression, posttraumatic stress disorder) and externalizing symptoms (e.g., aggression, substance use). Effect sizes for the interactions of exposure to violence and potential moderators were summarized by their patterns of protective processes. The majority of studies in the literature examined family characteristics as moderators of the exposure to violence–symptom relationship, rather than school- or community-level factors. Our results indicated more consistent patterns for (a) close family relationships and social support for internalizing symptoms and (b) close family relationships for externalizing symptoms. Overall, the most common type of protective pattern was protective-stabilizing, in which youth with higher levels of the environmental attribute demonstrate relative stability in mental health despite exposure to violence. We found no consistent evidence that parental monitoring—a dimension inversely associated with exposure to violence in prior studies—moderated the relationship between exposure to violence and symptoms. The study emphasizes the importance of strengthening family support for young people's exposure to community violence; more research is needed to provide a solid evidence base for the role of school and community-level protective factors for youth exposed to violence.     

THE ROLE OF FAMILY CONFLICT IN THE RELATION BETWEEN EXPOSURE TO COMMUNITY VIOLENCE AND DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS

The current study examined the role of family conflict as a mediator in the relation between exposure to community violence and depressive symptoms. Two hundred thirty‐two early adolescents (aged 11–16 years) completed a demographics questionnaire, the Survey of Exposure to Community Violence, the 9‐item conflict subscale of the Family Environment Scale, and the Children's Depression Inventory. Family conflict was found to be a significant mediator of the relation between exposure to community violence via victimization and depressive symptoms. Clinical efforts should seek to prevent or reduce conflict in families of youth experiencing community violence victimization. Future research should continue to evaluate microsystem factors as mechanisms through which exposure to community violence affects the psychological well‐being of youth.     

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSORS,SOCIAL SUPPORT,AND INTERNALIZING SYMPTOMS AMONG AFRICAN AMERICAN YOUTH

The relations among chronic environmental stressors, social support, and anxiety and depressive symptoms among urban, African American youth are unclear. In this study, we test theoretical models of support and examine the specific relations between community violence exposure and neighborhood disadvantage and three types of anxiety symptoms as well as depressive symptoms. Participants included 188 African American youth in Grades 5 through 8 from 2 low‐income urban schools. Results suggest victimization and neighborhood disadvantage were most significantly associated with symptoms, and in the context of these stressors, parent support was associated with fewer fear and concentration and depressive symptoms. Parent and friend support buffered the effects of stressors on depressive symptoms. These findings contribute to the literature in terms of testing specific stressor‐psychopathology relations and theory‐based social support models with urban, at‐risk youth. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

The mediating role of alienation in the development of maladjustment in youth exposed to community violence

A study was conducted to determine predictors of high risk/delinquent behavior and psychoemotional maladjustment in 1,478 sixth and eighth graders who took part in a survey of high-risk and adaptive behaviors. The first goal was to determine the extent to which two distinct dimensions of alienation, normlessness, and isolation/self-estrangement mediated the emergence of maladjustment in youth exposed to community violence. The second goal was to distinguish between violence witnessing and violence victimization, and determine whether these subtypes of violence exposure may differentially affect the proposed mediational factors. The results indicated that normlessness partially mediated the relationship between violence exposure and high-risk/delinquent behavior and between violence exposure and psychoemotional maladjustment. Isolation/self-estrangement partially mediated the relation between violence exposure and psychoemotional maladjustment. Although witnessing of, and victimization by, violence were both significant predictors of normlessness, only violent victimization was significantly linked to isolation/self-estrangement. These results elucidate the mechanisms by which community violence exposure may exert negative influences on youth and suggest that there are distinct patterns of risk associated with different forms of exposure.     

Family and community characteristics: Risk factors for violence exposure in inner‐city youth

Although research has found that urban youth experience excessive levels of community violence, few studies have focused on the factors that alter the risk of exposure to violence. The current study investigates the relation between neighborhood and violence exposure and between family functioning and risk for exposure to violence in different types of poor, urban neighborhoods. Participants were 249 inner‐city African American and Latino males ages 13–17 and their primary caregivers who participated in the Chicago Youth Development Study. The interaction between family functioning and neighborhood type accounted for increased exposure to violence. The greatest increases occurred among struggling families residing in inner‐city neighborhoods with high levels of social organization. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Violence Breeds Violence: Childhood Exposure and Adolescent Conduct Problems

The relationships between childhood exposure to violence and adolescent conduct problems were investigated in a sample of 88 primiparous adolescent mothers and their children. Regression analyses revealed that witnessing violence and victimization prior to age 10 predicted delinquency and violent behaviors, even after controlling for prenatal maternal and early childhood externalizing problems. Social competency and depression during middle childhood moderated the relationship between victimization and violent behaviors for girls, but not boys: Lower levels of social competency and depression served as risk factors for delinquency among teenage girls who experienced victimization during childhood. These findings have important implications for youth violence prevention programs.     

WHERE ARE THE HELPFUL BYSTANDERS? ECOLOGICAL NICHE AND VICTIMS’ PERCEPTIONS OF BYSTANDER INTERVENTION

This study explores an emergent area of bystander research by describing associations between bystander involvement and community or microsystemic support factors across different types of victimizations. A total of 1703 adults and adolescents were surveyed about bystander presence, bystander actions, and bystander safety across 9 forms of victimization. They were also surveyed about 3 community‐level factors—collective efficacy, support for community youth, informal community support—and 2 microsystemic factors—social support and tangible family resources community and microsystemic support scores were not typically associated with bystander presence. Higher community and microsystemic support scores, particularly support for community youth, informal community support, and social support, were commonly associated with perceiving bystanders as helpful to the situation. Support scores, especially collective efficacy, were also associated with bystander safety for some victimization types. Our exploratory findings show a relationship between bystander helpfulness and characteristics of the victim's community and microsystem, especially for victimization types that are typically public, like peer aggression.     

Concerns and coping of African-American mothers after youth assault requiring emergency medical treatment

OBJECTIVE: To explore maternal experience following youth assault occurring in the community. METHODS: A semistructured interview was used to elicit concerns and coping strategies among 35 African-American mothers whose children received emergency department (ED) treatment for assault-related injuries. Mothers also completed measures of violence exposure, trauma symptoms, social support, and youth functioning. RESULTS: The most common concerns involved family safety, maternal mental health, and youth externalizing behavior. Faith and social support were the most common coping strategies. High levels of distress were found, which were directly related to maternal violence exposure, relationships that required mothers to nurture others, and youth functioning. Distress was inversely related to relationships that provided guidance from others. CONCLUSION: Distress is common among low-income African-American mothers of youth assault victims. To bolster youth recovery and to reduce the risk of future injury, ED staff should be knowledgeable regarding culturally sensitive resources to address maternal distress.     

Adolescent psychosocial risk factors for severe intimate partner violence in young adulthood

The authors examined prospective measures of psychosocial risk factors as predictors of severe intimate partner violence among a community sample of 610 young adults at risk for intergenerational transmission of depression. The hypothesized risk factors were youth history of depression by age 15 and maternal history of depression. Youth social functioning at age 15 was tested as a mediator of these associations. Results showed that youth history of depression by age 15 predicted victimization at age 20. Severe violence perpetration was predicted by maternal depressive history among women but not men. Youth social functioning was a partial mediator of both associations. In sum, the findings suggest that psychosocial factors observed in adolescence may contribute to the risk of experiencing severe intimate partner violence during young adulthood.     

Community violence exposure and delinquent behaviors among youth: The moderating role of coping

This study examines the moderating roles of guardian and peer support and behavioral coping strategies on the relations between youths' community violence exposure and their delinquent behavior. A sample of 667 public school sixth‐graders in a large inner‐city school district, and their parents or guardians, were interviewed to assess youths' recent exposure to community violence, their delinquent behavior, and proposed moderating variables. Support from guardians buffered the relation between girls' victimization by community violence and delinquency. Support from peers buffered the effects of witnessing community violence on delinquent behavior of boys, but it amplified the effects of victimization for both girls and boys. Avoidant coping behavior buffered the effect of victimization on delinquency for boys but unexpectedly amplified the effect of witnessing violence on delinquency for girls. For both genders, confrontational coping strategies amplified the impact of victimization on delinquency and, for boys only, amplified the impact of witnessing violence as well. Controls were imposed for variables expected to influence the relation between exposure and delinquency, such as ethnicity, family violence, delinquent behavior of friends, and recruitment cohort. Suggestions for future research and implications for intervention are discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 31: 489–512, 2003.     

Relative impact of violence exposure and immigrant stressors on Latino youth psychopathology

Latino youth in a low‐income urban community are at high risk of exposure to violence. Given an accumulation of factors before, during, and after migration, immigrant youth might be at increased risk of exposure to violence and other relevant stressors (e.g., acculturation stress, language proficiency, acculturation/enculturation, and parental separations). Utilizing a short‐term longitudinal design, we assessed exposure to violence and immigrant stressors and examined their relative impact on psychopathology in a sample of 164 Latino youth. Immigrant youth reported greater exposure to immigrant stressors relative to native‐born peers, but few differences in rates of exposure to violence emerged. When considered alongside relevant immigration stressors, exposure to violence emerged as the strongest predictor of youth psychopathology. Results suggest that some types of stressors have more consistently deleterious effects on mental health and understanding resilient outcomes might entail considering the meaning attributed to stressors and the resources available to cope with stressors. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

First‐grade child risk behaviors for community violence exposure in middle school

This study examined behavioral indicators (measured by multiple informants) of young urban children's exposure to community violence during middle school. The community‐based school sample included 549 students (53% male; 86.8% African American, 13.2% Euro American). First‐grade aggressive behavior and anxiety symptoms were examined as predictors of later victimization and witnessing of community violence. Logistic regression analyses indicated that girls' first‐grade aggression significantly predicted witnessing violence in middle school, regardless of informant. Parent‐reported child aggression significantly predicted boys' later victimization. Teacher‐ and parent‐reported child aggression was associated with witnessing more community violence among boys with low self‐reported anxiety. Anxiety attenuated the relationship between aggression and witnessing community violence during adolescence for boys. The importance of the identifying early predictors of later community violence exposure in designing preventive interventions is discussed. © 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Comm Psychol 31: 297–314, 2003.     

Exposure to Community Violence and the Trajectory of Internalizing and Externalizing Symptoms in a Sample of Low-Income Urban Youth

This study examined trajectories of psychopathology in a sample of low-income urban youth and tested exposure to community violence as a predictor of these trajectories. Self-report and parent-report survey measures of psychological problems and exposure to community violence were collected annually over 3 years from a sample of 364 fifth- to ninth-grade low-income urban youth (64% female; 95% youth of color). Linear growth models showed that youth experienced declines in both internalizing and externalizing symptoms across adolescence. Exposure to community violence was more strongly associated with externalizing symptoms than with internalizing symptoms but predicted declines in both types of symptoms. Results also indicated that youth reported more internalizing and externalizing symptoms than their parents reported for them. Exposure to community violence may explain unique trajectories of mental health problems among low-income urban youth. In addition, youth efforts to adopt a tough façade in the face of community violence could lead to higher rates of externalizing problems relative to internalizing problems, whereas desensitization processes may better explain reductions in both types of symptoms over time. Finally, youth report may be more valid than parent report in the context of urban poverty.     

Impact of victimization,community climate,and community size on the mental health of sexual and gender minority youth

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) youth are at risk of stigma and victimization, which may lead to increased mental health symptoms, including depression, anxiety, and stress. The role of the community in exacerbating or mitigating the frequency of victimization and mental health symptoms among SGM youth has been understudied. Using a minority stress framework, this study examined the association between physical and nonphysical anti‐SGM victimization, perceived community climate, and community size and their effects on depression, anxiety, and stress among SGM youth. An online survey was completed by 296 SGM‐identified youth (aged 14–18 years). Results revealed that nonphysical forms of victimization were associated with depression, anxiety, and stress above and beyond physical victimization and community variables. Both types of victimization were more common in communities that participants perceived to be hostile and small towns. Practice implications include ways to reduce victimization and improve mental health via community climate and community interventions.     

Victimization of lesbian,gay, and bisexual youth in community settings

One hundred ninety-four lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth between the ages of 15 and 21 were surveyed about victimization due to their sexual orientation. Three areas were assessed: (1) the prevalence of different kinds of victimization, ranging from verbal abuse to armed assault; (2) the specific social contexts in which anti-lesbian/gay victimization occurred, including family, school, work, and the broader community; and (3) correlates of anti– lesbian/gay victimization, including age-related sexual orientation milestones, concealability of sexual orientation, sex, race/ethnicity, and safety fears. Most respondents had experienced some form of victimization, with no social environment being free from risk of harm. Particularly vulnerable for abuse were youth who self-labeled or self-disclosed at an earlier age and those whose sexual orientation was less concealed or concealable.     

Damaged youth: prevalence of community violence exposure and implications for adolescent well‐being in post‐conflict Northern Ireland

As Northern Ireland transitions to a post‐conflict society the nature of violent victimization and its influence on adolescents following the “Troubles” becomes an even more important area of interest. Adolescents are particularly at risk of victimization and associated social, emotional, and psychological health problems. In this analysis of the fifth year of the Belfast Youth Development Study (BYDS), the prevalence and implications of exposure to violence is examined for a sample of 3,828 young people (aged 15–16 years). Knowledge of violent events was particularly prevalent suggesting that the social and psychological legacy of the “Troubles” may pass onto post‐conflict generations. Over three quarters of young people had experienced violence within their community. Exposure was associated with higher levels of depression, psychotic symptoms, and substance misuse. The findings suggest that adolescents in Northern Ireland are vulnerable to both direct and vicarious victimization, and, subsequently, to significant risks to psychological well‐being. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Community violence exposure and children's social adjustment in the school peer group: the mediating roles of emotion regulation and social cognition

This study reports a cross-sectional investigation of the relation between community violence exposure and peer group social maladjustment in 285 inner-city children in Grades 4-6 (mean age = 10.3 years). Children completed an inventory assessing exposure to community violence through witnessing and through direct victimization. A peer nomination inventory was then administered to assess social adjustment with peers (aggression, peer rejection, and bullying by peers). In addition, social-cognitive biases and emotion regulation capacities were examined as potential mediators. Analyses indicated that violent victimization was associated with negative social outcomes through the mediation of emotion dysregulation. Witnessed violence was linked only to aggressive behavior. Social information processing, rather than emotion dysregulation, appeared to mediate this association. These results demonstrate that violence exposure is linked to multiple levels of behavioral and social maladjustment and suggest that there are distinct patterns of risk associated with different forms of exposure.     

Poly-victimization,Trauma, and Resilience: Exploring Strengths That Promote Thriving After Adversity

ABSTRACT

Although it is well known that victimization is associated with higher trauma symptoms, there is still limited information on the protective factors that can help people thrive after adversity. Using the Resilience Portfolio Model as a framework, this study explores a range of psychological and social strengths in a community sample of youth from the southern U.S.

A sample of 440 youth aged 10 to 21 (average age 16.38, SD = 3.04) was recruited from youth-serving organizations. They completed a survey on trauma symptoms, victimization, other adversities, and 16 psychological and social strengths.

Almost 9 in 10 (89.3%) youth reported one or more victimizations, with peer victimizations most common. Adult-perpetrated offenses were reported by almost half of youth (47.1%). Although several psychological and social strengths were inversely correlated with trauma symptoms at the bivariate level, hierarchical regressions indicated that a sense of purpose was the only strength that uniquely contributed to more resilient mental health in a model with all strengths and controlling for victimization, other adversities, poverty, age, and gender (total R² = .33). The variance explained by strengths (17%) was similar to the variance explained by adversities (15%).

In this highly victimized sample of youth, many strengths were associated with lower trauma symptoms for youth, with a sense of purpose showing the most promise. Prevention and intervention programs may benefit from efforts to increase a sense of purpose or other meaning making activities, in addition to efforts that specifically target incidents of trauma.