Behavioral correlates of maternal depressive symptomatology in conduct-disorder children: II. Systemic effects involving fathers and siblings

This study tested a systemic hypothesis of the relation between maternal depressive symptomatology and the behavior of conduct-disordered children (n = 47) toward their mothers, fathers, and siblings. Maternal symptomatology interacted with the children's behavior toward all family members. Children whose mothers were distressed tended to be more compliant and less aversive toward them than toward their fathers, and the opposite applied to children whose mothers were not distressed. Comparable results were obtained in comparisons of child interactions with mothers and siblings, although in the latter case the children's behaviors differed in absolute magnitude as a function of their interaction partner.     

Maternal Facilitation of Children's Problem Solving: Relation to Disruptive Child Behavior and Maternal Characteristics

Examined the relation between mother-child interaction behaviors, disruptive child behavior, and maternal characteristics within the context of maternal facilitation of children's problem solving. In a group comparison analysis, mothers of disruptive children took over the task more and provided fewer closed-ended questions than mothers of nondisruptive children. Subsequent regression analyses found higher levels of mothers' taking-over behavior predicted children's off-task behavior in the analogue tasks; lower frequency of mothers' closed-ended question behavior predicted higher teacher and parent ratings of disruptive behavior at school and home; and higher materal depression predicted fewer mothers' closed-ended questions during the analogue.     

The role of child gender,problem behaviors,and the family environment on maternal depressive symptoms: findings from mothers of substance abusing runaway adolescents

This study examined the relation between maternal depressive symptoms and adolescents' problem behaviors, moderated by adolescent gender, as well as the association between maternal depressive symptoms and the family environment characteristics above and beyond child variables. Data were collected from 137 mothers of runaway adolescents with alcohol and/or substance abuse problems. Results showed that both internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors of adolescent girls, as opposed to problem behaviors of boys, were significantly associated with maternal depressive symptoms. In addition, higher family cohesion was significantly related to lower maternal depressive symptoms even after controlling for adolescent problem behaviors. However, no significant relationship was found between family conflict and maternal depressive symptoms. These findings indicate that both adolescents' problem behaviors and mothers' perceptions of the family environment are associated with maternal depressive symptoms, highlighting the potential utility of the family systems theoretical framework for understanding and intervening mothers' emotional problems in the family context. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Long-Term Follow-Up of Families with Young Conduct Problem Children: From Preschool to Grade School

Conducted a long-term follow-up of 83 mothers and 51 fathers who had received one of three parent training programs 3 years earlier for their preschoolers' conduct problems. Follow-up results indicated overall improvements in parent reports of the children's behaviors compared to baseline reports. However, only treatment that combined videotape modeling with therapist-led group discussion achieved stable improvements. Evaluation of the "clinical significance" of the treatment programs indicated that, after 3 years, 25% to 46% of parents and 26% of teachers reported significant child behavior problems. The families whose children were maladjusted were characterized by single-parent status, increased maternal depression, lower social class status, and family history of alcoholism and drug abuse.     

BOOK REVIEW: Handbook of Parent Training: Parents as Co-Therapists for Children's Behavior Problems (2nd ed)

We examined parent and child moderators of outcome, program engagement effects, and predictors of engagement in the Incredible Years Parent Training Program. Head Start classrooms (N = 882 children) were randomly assigned to an intervention condition (that received the Incredible Years program) or to a control condition (that received usual Head Start services). Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to model the effects of the training program on child outcomes. The analyses showed differential program effects depending on children's initial levels of conduct problems and mothers' initial levels of critical parenting. Children with high baseline levels of conduct problems and children of mothers with high initial levels of critical parenting benefited most from the program. Changes in children's conduct problems were also related to maternal engagement in the program and to intervention mothers' success at reducing their critical parenting.     

A Step Beyond Maternal Depression and Child Behavior Problems: The Role of Mother–Child Aggression

Previous researchers have identified problematic mother–child interaction patterns as a potential pathway through which maternal depressive symptoms impact child behavior problems, but could not establish the temporal precedence of these associations. This longitudinal study investigated mother–child aggression as a mechanism in the association between maternal depressive symptoms that occurred during infancy and subsequent child behavior problems among high-risk families. Two hundred thirty-four socioeconomically disadvantaged families were recruited from neighborhoods with high rates of family violence. During infancy (12–18 months), early childhood (4 years), and middle childhood (6 years), mothers reported their current depressive symptoms and use of psychological and physical aggression with their child. During early and middle childhood, mothers reported their children’s behavior problems. Using path analyses, a temporal process was identified in which mother–child aggression during early childhood mediated the association between maternal depressive symptoms during infancy and higher levels of externalizing behavior problems during middle childhood. Mother–-child aggression did not mediate the association between maternal depressive symptoms during infancy and higher levels of internalizing behavior problems during middle childhood. Early maternal depressive symptoms that occur during infancy are important risk factors for subsequent mother–child aggression, which, in turn, contributes to more child externalizing behavior problems. Therefore, screening mothers for depressive symptoms and providing intervention and prevention services to improve mother–child interactions may be crucial to preventing the exacerbation of externalizing behavior problems. Additional research is needed to identify pathways to child internalizing behavior problems.     

Transactional Associations Among Maternal Depression,Parent–Child Coercion,and Child Conduct Problems During Early Childhood

Maternal depression is among the most consistent and well-replicated risk factors for negative child outcomes, particularly in early childhood. Although children of depressed mothers are at an increased risk of adjustment problems, conversely, children with emotional or behavioral problems also have been found to adversely compromise maternal functioning, including increasing maternal depression. The purpose of this investigation was to examine transactional associations among maternal depression, parent–child coercive interaction, and children’s conduct and emotional problems in early childhood using a cross-lagged panel model. Participants were 731 toddlers and families that were part of the Early Steps Multisite Study, a sample of diverse ethnic backgrounds and communities (i.e., rural, urban, suburban) recruited from Women, Infants, and Children Nutritional Supplement Centers. Analyses provided support for the existence of some modest transactional relations between parent–child coercion and maternal depression and between maternal depression and child conduct problems. Cross-lagged effects were somewhat stronger between children age 2–3 than age 3–4. Similar patterns were observed in the model with child emotional problems replacing conduct problems, but relations between coercion and maternal depression were attenuated in this model. In addition, the transactional hypothesis was more strongly supported when maternal versus secondary caregiver reports were used for child problem behavior. The findings have implications for the need to support caregivers and reinforce positive parenting practices within family-centered interventions in early childhood.     

Mother Perceptions and Mother-Child Interactions: Comparison of a Clinic-referred and a Nonclinic Group

The purpose of this study was to compare 40 clinic-referred conduct-disordered children and their mothers with 28 "normal" or nonclinic children and their mothers on mother behaviors, child behaviors, and mother reports of child behaviors. The study used two independent observational systems: One assessed the quantity of negative behaviors both 'in mothers and children, and the second assessed the qualitative and affective aspects of parent-child interactions. The results indicated that the two groups differed on child positive affect and dominance behaviors; on mother positive affect, submissiveness, praise, commands, and criticisms; and on maternal reports of child adjustment. Although maternal report of child:adjustment was the best discriminator between the two groups, the two observational systems provided additional information on the qualitative differences between clinic and nonclinic mother-child interactions. The implications of these findings for the assessment and treatment of conduct-disordered children and their families are discussed.     

Structure and variability in the developmental trajectory of children's externalizing problems: impact of infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex

This study explores the developmental trajectory of externalizing problems in a sample of 101 children of adolescent mothers from preschool through third grade using hierarchical linear models (HLM). First, a detailed assessment of the structure of the developmental trajectory of externalizing problems is provided. Second, the impact of three risk factors (infant attachment, maternal depressive symptomatology, and child sex) on the developmental course of externalizing problems is assessed. Both avoidant and disorganized attachment and higher levels of maternal depressive symptomatology were associated with higher levels of externalizing problems at 9 years of age. Girls also showed higher externalizing problems relative to their same-sex peers than did boys. In addition, maternal depressive symptomatology related to the rate of change in these problems over time: the greater the mother's depression, the faster externalizing problems tended to increase. Although the overall level of maternal depressive symptomatology was related to children's externalizing problems for secure, avoidant, and disorganized groups, changes in maternal depressive symptomatology over time predicted levels of externalizing problems only for children with avoidant insecure attachments.     

Maternal Depression,Parenting, and Youth Depressive Symptoms: Mediation and Moderation in a Short-Term Longitudinal Study

Although multiple studies find that offspring of depressed mothers are at risk for depressive disorders, there is uncertainty about the specific mechanisms that are at work—particularly with respect to modifiable factors that might be targeted for early intervention. The present work examines that parenting behaviors may operate as mediators, moderators, or independent influences on the development of youth depressive symptoms. One hundred one mothers and their early adolescent children participated in positive and negative interaction tasks. Maternal and youth self-reports of youth depressive symptoms were collected at baseline, 9-month, and 18-month assessments. Maternal history of depression was significantly associated with maternal-reported, but not youth self-reported, depressive symptomatology. Maternal positive and negative interaction behaviors in positive contexts were associated with higher youth self-reported depressive symptoms. Maternal positive interaction behaviors in positive contexts and maternal negative interactive behaviors in conflict contexts were associated with higher youth self-reported depressive symptoms. We found no evidence for maternal interaction behaviors serving as a mediator and little evidence of maternal interaction behaviors serving as a moderator of the relationship between maternal and offspring depression. Low maternal positive engagement tended to be more consistently associated with maternal- and self-reported youth depressive symptoms. The present findings suggest that characteristics of mother–child interactions that are associated with youth depressive symptomatology are pertinent to youth with and without a mother with a history of depression.     

Changes in maternal sensitivity across the first three years: are mothers from different attachment dyads differentially influenced by depressive symptomatology?

Hierarchical linear modeling was used to describe longitudinal relations between maternal sensitivity and depressive symptomatology for mothers of children with differing attachment classifications at 36 months of child age using data from the NICHD Study of Early Child Care. Attachment during toddlerhood was assessed using a modified Strange Situation Paradigm developed by the MacArthur Working Group on Attachment. On average, maternal sensitivity increased longitudinally from 6 to 36 months for groups with children classified as secure or resistant, but not for groups classified as avoidant or disorganized. Higher maternal depressive symptoms were associated with lower levels of sensitivity for all mothers, although this effect was significantly less severe for mothers of securely attached children. In addition, higher maternal depressive symptoms were associated with decreases in sensitivity from 6 to 36 months for mothers of children who at 36 months showed disorganized attachments combined with underlying patterns of avoidant or resistant behavior.     

Relation of Adolescent Mothers' History of Antisocial Behavior to Child Conduct Problems and Social Competence

We examined the extent to which maternal antisocial behavior (ASB) is directly related to child conduct problems and social competence and assessed the potential mediating role of negative parenting. The sample included 93 adolescent mothers and their children (44 boys, 49 girls). Mothers retrospectively reported about their ASB since the child's birth, through Grade 2. Negative parenting was coded during a parent–child interaction task (PCIT) at Grade 2. Teachers assessed child outcomes at Grade 3. Maternal ASB during the child's life was directly related to parenting and both child outcomes. In the overall sample, negative parenting partially mediated the relation between maternal ASB and child conduct problems. However, the pattern of relations differed by sex. For boys, maternal ASB was directly related to conduct problems, independent of parenting. For girls, maternal ASB was strongly related to parenting but not conduct problems. Negative parenting did not mediate the relation between maternal ASB and child social competence. Implications for intervention and future research are discussed.     

Behavioral correlates of maternal depressive symptomatology in conduct-disorder children

We contrasted two predictive models of the impact of maternal depressive symptomatology on child behavior in a study of 51 mothers and their conduct-disorder children. Relations between global measures of maternal distress and child adjustment and observational measures of mother-child interaction were examined. Children of distressed mothers were more maladjusted than children of nondistressed mothers, when maladjustment was measured on the basis of a global rating, but "better" adjusted when measured on the basis of interactional measures. Measures of maternal indiscriminate responding to the child may account for these findings. Results suggest that (a) although conduct-disorder children are generally more maladjusted when their mothers are distressed, they display this maladjustment in a selective fashion, and (b) maternal distress acts as an adverse contextual factor that maintains mother-child interactional difficulties by disrupting the attentional and monitoring skills required for contingent responding.     

Role of maternal depression in perceptions of child maladjustment

We investigated (a) the relation of maternal depression to perceptions of externalizing and internalizing disorders in children and (b) quality of communication in a mother-child interaction task as a function of maternal depression and perceptions of the child. 64 children of unipolar or bipolar mothers, chronic medically ill or normal mothers were studied; clinical diagnoses, children's reports, and teachers' ratings served as objective criteria of children's maladjustment. Maternal depression defined by current symptomatology on the Beck Depression Inventory and by psychiatric status was not associated with misperceptions of psychopathology. Maternal depression interacted with children's actual behaviors to predict mothers' perceptions: nondepressed mothers were less accurate reporters of problems in children than were depressed mothers. Depressed mothers who perceived maladjustment in their disturbed children made more negative comments in interactions that did nondepressed mothers of disturbed children. The apparent mutual impact of mothers' and children's maladjustment requires fuller exploration in offspring studies.     

Marital Adjustment,Marital Discord Over Childrearing,and Child Behavior Problems: Moderating Effects of Child Age

Examined whether marital discord over childrearing contributes to child behavior problems after taking into account general marital adjustment, and if child age moderates associations between child behavior problems and either general marital adjustment or marital discord over childrearing. Participants were 146 two-parent families seeking services for their child's (4 to 9 years of age) conduct problems. Data on marital functioning and child behavior problems were collected from both parents. Mothers' and fathers' reports of marital discord over childrearing related positively to child externalizing problems after accounting for general marital adjustment. Child age moderated associations between fathers' reports of general marital adjustment and both internalizing and externalizing child problems, with associations being stronger in families with younger children. The discussion highlights the role that developmental factors may play in understanding the link between marital and child behavior problems in clinic-referred families.     

Child-Directed Interaction Training for Young Children With Autism Spectrum Disorders: Parent and Child Outcomes

This study examined the efficacy of the Child-Directed Interaction Training (CDIT) phase of Parent–Child Interaction Therapy for children with an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Thirty mother–child dyads with children ages 3–7 years with a diagnosis of ASD participated in this randomized controlled study. Following manualized CDIT, statistically significant and meaningful improvements in child disruptive behavior and social awareness as well as maternal distress associated with child disruptive behavior occurred. Across 8 sessions, mothers learned to provide positive attention to their children's appropriate social and play behaviors. Both child and parent changes were maintained at 6-week follow-up. A relatively brief, time-limited, and accessible intervention may be efficacious for improving child and parent behaviors in families of young children with ASD. By decreasing child disruptive behaviors, CDIT may also help to prepare children to benefit further from future interventions.     

A longitudinal study of maternal attachment and infant developmental outcomes

Extant research has demonstrated that compared to adults with insecure attachment styles, more securely attached parents tend to be more responsive, sensitive, and involved parents, resulting in improved outcomes for their children. Less studied is the influence of a mother's attachment style on her attachment to her unborn child during pregnancy and the consequent developmental outcomes of the child during early childhood. Thus, the aim of this prospective longitudinal study was to examine the relationship between maternal–fetal attachment (MFA) during pregnancy and infant and toddler outcomes and the role of mothers' attachment style on early childhood developmental outcomes in an economically disadvantaged sample of women and their children. Gamma regression modeling demonstrated that an avoidant maternal attachment style (b?=?.98, 95 % CI [.97, .98], p?<?0.001) and post-partum depressive symptomatology (b?=?.97, 95 % CI [.96–.99], p?=?0.03) were significant predictors of early childhood development. Women demonstrating higher avoidant attachment styles and greater depressive symptomatology were more likely to have children demonstrating early childhood developmental delays than those women with less avoidant attachment styles and less depressive symptomatology. Furthermore, women reporting higher MFA during pregnancy had more secure attachment styles, and their children had more optimal early childhood development than those women reporting lower MFA and less secure attachment styles. Findings have implications for enhancing early intervention programs aimed at improving maternal and childhood outcomes. An earlier identification of disruptions in attachment may be beneficial in tailoring interventions focused on the mother–child dyad.     

Characterizing interactions between anxious mothers and their children

The present study assessed interactions between anxious mothers and their children, using observational techniques to elucidate potential mechanisms of anxiety transmission. Results revealed that anxious mothers were less warm and positive in their interactions with their children, less granting of autonomy, and more critical and catastrophizing in comparison with normal control mothers. Maternal anxiety status appeared to be the primary predictor of maternal warmth during interactions. Child anxiety status was most predictive of maternal granting of autonomy behavior. Maternal behaviors exhibited during interactions were the most salient predictors of child anxiety, contributing more than maternal psychopathology or ongoing strain to the development of child anxiety. Interventions focusing on family interactions that take into account the contributions of both members of the dyad may be more effective in curbing transmission than interventions that solely address maternal or child symptomatology.     

MATERNAL CHARACTERISTICS ASSOCIATED WITH CHILD BEHAVIOR REPORTS IN HEAD START SETTINGS

The objective of this study was to examine the association between maternal characteristics and mother‐rated child behavior reports for 435 predominately African American children enrolled in urban Head Start programs. Mothers who were adolescents at the time of their child's birth reported more favorable child behaviors compared with those who were not adolescents at childbirth. Less favorable ratings of child behavior scores were observed for mothers with a history of family substance abuse, depression, and welfare receipt. These findings should assist in policy decisions for the allocation of targeted family and child interventions.     

Early Problem Behavior Among Children From Low-Income,Mother-Headed Families: A Multiple Risk Perspective

Examined proximal and contextual factors most strongly related to externalizing behavior among young children growing up in low-income, mother-headed families. Participants were 50 low-income single mothers and their preschool-age children who were visited twice in the home setting. Measures of proximal (low levels of supportive parenting, high levels of punitive disciplinary practices, low levels of maternal emotional well-being) and contextual (low maternal support, high levels of family stress) risk were assessed in relation to maternal reports of child externalizing behavior and an index of negative child behavior during a clean-up task. Child defiance during the clean-up task was highly associated with punitive maternal control in the same situation but had no other direct correlates. However, multiple risk factors representing both proximal and contextual variables were associated with variations in children's behavior problem scores. Mothers of children with high behavior problem scores reported lower feelings of self-efficacy in handling child care and emotional stressors, more frequent use of punitive child disciplinary practices, and lower feelings of satisfaction with the quality of their supportive resources than others. Maternal self-evaluations of coping efficacy mediated the relation between perceived support and child behavior problems, suggesting that constructs of personal control are important to represent in future studies of highly stressed parents.