Core and comprehensive health care services: 1. Introduction to the Canadian Medical Association's decision-making framework.

The CMA's decision-making framework on core (i.e., publicly funded) and comprehensive health care services emphasizes flexibility and recognizes three levels at which decisions can be made: between patients and physicians (micro), in the community or by society (meso) and by governments (macro). Three major content dimensions are considered quality of care (e.g., effectiveness, appropriateness and efficiency of health care services), ethics (e.g., decisions that reflect fairness and acceptability to patients and physicians) and economics (e.g., measurement of service costs against economic benefits in a time of severe economic restraint). There are challenges in applying the framework; however, by providing decision-makers with the knowledge and tools needed to assist in the process, it is hoped that the first and foremost concern will continue to be the quality of patient care so highly valued by Canadians.     

Core and comprehensive health care services

CMA believes that physicians must be actively involved in the decision-making process on core and comprehensive services. It has developed a new framework for this purpose after review and analysis of national and international decision-making frameworks, and after consideration of the political, policy and legal context of Canadian health care decision making. In addition to the framework, key terms associated with core and comprehensive health care services are operationally defined. Quality of care and ethical and economic factors are considered in a balanced and flexible manner, recognizing that the relative importance of any one factor may vary depending on the health care service being considered.     

Core and comprehensive health care services: 2. Quality-of-care issues.

Health care services are being evaluated and redefined. Terms such as "medically necessary" and "comprehensive" are being supplanted by "core", "basic" and "optional." Quality-of-care concepts and analysis can assist decision making about which services should be insured, core services. A service is more likely to remain or become insured, and core to the system if it satisfies the key dimensions of high quality: effectiveness, appropriateness, efficiency, patient acceptance and safety. Quality of care, combined with ethical and economic considerations, provides an analytic framework for deciding whether services should be insured.     

Visions of our Medicare future: status quo has become a dirty word in Canadian health care.

This is the second article in a three-part series on the future of Canada's health care system. The articles are presented as a follow-up to the impassioned debate on the topic during the CMA's 1995 annual meeting in Winnipeg. The first article, which appeared in the Feb. 1 issue, dealt with the development of a parallel private health care system in the United Kingdom. This article deals with the consequences of maintaining the health care status quo in Canada. The final one, to appear Apr. l, will debate whether a parallel private system is a worthwhile option for Canada to consider. Last August, General Council decided unanimously that the CMA should spark a national debate on the advisability of introducing private insurance for all medical services.     

It's time for CMA to put the lid on privatization.

Family physician Cynthia Carver wasn't heartened by the CMA's "last-minute retreat" from a call to pursue privatization of health care. During its August annual meeting, the association not only supported a strong, publicly funded health care system but also passed a number of resolutions related to the private sector and the appropriate role for regulated private medical insurance in Canada. Carver proposes that the energy being expended on schemes to delist, privatize, define core services and design payment schemes should instead be applied to improving the existing system.     

What every doctor should know about economics. Part 2. The benefits of economic appraisal

In this article we have discussed a number of aspects of economic appraisal. Economic evaluation considers both costs and benefits. Cost-benefit analysis requires the evaluation of health in dollar terms but allows the comparison of health programmes with other programmes or the evaluation of one project alone. Because of the problems that are associated with placing a monetary value on life and health, cost-benefit analysis has not been used in the health field as extensively as has cost-effectiveness analysis. Cost-effectiveness analysis is used to compare alternative programmes with the same health goal. The importance of quality as well as length of life as health outcomes has led to the development of cost-utility analysis. Finally, a good economic evaluation of health care requires the collaboration of clinicians and health economists.     

Saying goodbye to Canada's single-payer system.

Cost shifting, in which governments transfer the cost of certain health care services to patients or private insurance companies, is increasing rapidly, and Dr. Christopher Carruthers thinks it will spell an end to Canada's single-payer system. The signs are already there: the private sector is offering more services and employers are keeping a closer eye on the health care system as they begin to pay a bigger share of the costs. The result, says Carruthers, is that government influence is bound to diminish as the private sector tries to fill voids created by governments that are trying to live within their fiscal means.     

Multilevel care. A Veterans Administration initiative in health care cost control.

The Veterans Administration's (VA) Department of Medicine and Surgery, the largest of the civilian federal health care systems, is under continuous White House, congressional, and public pressure to provide greater accountability and increased cost-effectiveness for its $5 billion-plus annual budget. Responding to these pressures, the VA is evaluating in ten of its 172 medical centers a new system of resource allocation and financial management known as a multilevel care system. This is a major VA intiative with highly important implications for both the VA and the private health care sector.     

When is it cost-effective to change the behavior of health professionals?

Because of the workings of health care systems, new, important, and cost-effective treatments sometimes do not become routine care while well-marketed products of equivocal value achieve widespread adoption. Should policymakers attempt to influence clinical behavior and correct for these inefficiencies? Implementation methods achieve a certain level of behavioral change but cost money to enact. These factors can be combined with the cost-effectiveness of treatments to estimate an overall policy cost-effectiveness. In general, policy cost-effectiveness is always less attractive than treatment cost-effectiveness. Consequently trying to improve the uptake of underused cost-effective care or reduce the overuse of new and expensive treatments may not always make economic sense. In this article, we present a method for calculating policy cost-effectiveness and illustrate it with examples from a recent trial, conducted during 1997 and 1998, of educational outreach by community pharmacists to influence physician prescribing in England.     

Using demographic data for ambulatory health care planning: A dental health practice management model

The use of sociodemographic data in planning ambulatory health services is discussed and illustrated. Five global indices are identified as important for establishing contours of need within local community areas: social class, population heterogeneity, resident mobility, family organization, and general stress factors, Knowledge of sociodemographic distributions within a given community can serve as an adjunct for rational decision making in planning and placement of ambulatory health care services. It can also establish a means for evaluating whether extant health services reach their intended targets via comparisons to the social demography of patients receiving care in private practices or public clinics. Such analyses are germane to ambulatory health care practitioners in both the public and private sector.     

Health USA. A national health program for the United States.

The Health USA Act of 1991 addresses two fundamental health services financing problems: the more than 30 million uninsured persons and the rising costs for health care and for health insurance. Health USA would provide coverage of the entire resident population for comprehensive medical and preventive health and long-term care services through a universal tax-funded financing system. The federal government would contribute an average of 87% of program costs to each state, which would establish, under federal guidelines, a state health program. Each individual or family may enroll in any health plan approved by the state program, including many private plans, or a plan run by the state program. Through the approved plan of their choice, enrollees would receive covered services and obtain their care from participating physicians and other professional practitioners, hospitals, and other facilities. The state program would pay approved plans a capitation payment for every person enrolled. The plans would pay professional providers fees, as part of an all-payer system of fee schedules and expenditure targets, or capitation payments or salary. Hospitals would be financed through global budgets negotiated by the state program with each hospital. The plan run by the state program would pay the health care costs of any person who does not enroll in an approved plan, making the state plan the payer of last resort and eliminating uncompensated care and cost shifting by providers. Health USA would separate health care coverage from employment, ensuring uninterrupted coverage and eliminating employers' administrative role in providing coverage. Federal and state taxes would replace present methods of financing by private insurance premiums and large out-of-pocket expenditures. Building on the present system of health plans, Health USA would offer all persons a wide choice of competing plans in which to enroll and offer professional providers a wide choice of plans in which to practice. It would control costs by increasing financial accountability of providers and health plans, reducing present reliance on intrusive utilization review and on patient cost sharing. By controlling health care and administrative costs, Health USA would cover the entire population and, according to independent cost estimates, reduce national health expenditures by $11.5 billion in 1991.     

Health financing in Lebanon. I. Organization of health care services, coverage system and contribution of the Ministry of Public Health

This paper intends to analyze the health care system in Lebanon from the organizational and financial points of view. It allows for an understanding of the health services' market by tackling it from different angles: supply versus demand, private versus public sectors, curative versus preventive services, hospital versus ambulatory care. This study necessitated a review of all previous surveys made in this field, during the after-war period. It also needed the daily collection and follow-up of pertinent data with all private and public agencies and concerned ministries, over a one-year period. In addition, a critical analysis has been made to the survey Conditions de vie des ménages, en 1997, that was carried out by the Central Administration of Statistics, that came to complete the missing data concerning household expenditures on insurance and health services. Especially that this survey covered the same period (1997), subject of this study. The paper reveals that, although the private sector is the main provider of both hospital and ambulatory care, private hospitals are flourishing on public money, whereas outpatients care is mainly financed by the households. Evidence shows that the Lebanese health care system succeeded in resolving the problem of accessibility to primary, secondary and tertiary health care, responding thus to the value of equity. But, at the price of an ever escalating cost, threatening the sustainability of the system. This is what is attained in this paper, as it shows clearly that expenditures on health have reached an alarming level of the GDP share. Our purpose being providing solid arguments in favor of reforming the health system.     

Nurse practitioners in primary care. VI. Assessment of their deployment with the Utilization and Financial Index.

The impact of multidisciplinary teams that incorporate nurse practitioners on total use of health services was measured with the new Utilization and Financial Index (UF-Index). The data from two studies, a randomized controlled trial and a before-and-after study, showed that, in spite of large increases in use of ambulatory services by practice populations served by family physician-nurse practitioner teams, the ultimate effect has been a substantial reduction in total use of health services. The effect was associated with major reductions in hospital care for the same populations. Such economic advantages to society proved feasible within a fee-for-service context and in settings where rigorous evidence demonstrated no concurrent deterioration in health status of patients or in quality of care.     

Allocation of health care resources: a challenge for the medical profession.

If current limitations on health care funding continue, medical practitioners will face increasing pressure to conserve scarce resources and to participate in the allocation of funds. This article discusses the ethical and economic aspects of the physician's role and briefly reviews some efficiency measures that might mitigate the effects of rationing of health care services.     

什么是社区卫生服务质量?

社区卫生服务质量应该从个体和群体两个层面来理解。从个体角度看,可及性和有效性是两个最关键的质量维度,其中有效性包括技术服务和人际服务两方面,并应该从服务的结构、过程和结果3个方面来分析;从群体的层面看,社区卫生服务质量应该加上公平性和效率的维度。     

重庆市民营医院医疗服务现况调查

目的了解重庆市民营医院医疗服务现状,为规范民营医疗机构执业行为和医疗服务市场提供决策依据。方法采用执法检查和调查相结合的方法,对重庆市民营医院医疗服务现状进行全面了解。结果全市122家民营医院存在不同程度的违法行为,占民营医院总数的61.93%,其中44家民营医院涉嫌聘用非卫生技术人员,占民营医院总数的22.34%;12家民营医院涉嫌发布虚假违法医疗广告,占民营医院总数的6.09%;2家民营医院擅自开展母婴保健技术服务,76家民营医院存在其他违法行为。结论卫生行政部门应加强指导,监督机构应严格执法,进一步加强法律宣传和行业自律,民营医院应积极组织培训和相关资格考试的工作。     

Care for Canada''s frail elderly population: Fragmentation or integration?

Budget constraints, technological advances and a growing elderly population have resulted in major reforms in health care systems across Canada. This has led to fewer and smaller acute care hospitals and increasing pressure on the primary care and continuing care networks. The present system of care for the frail elderly, who are particularly vulnerable, is characterized by fragmentation of services, negative incentives and the absence of accountability. This is turn leads to the inappropriate and costly use of health and social services, particularly in acute care hospitals and long-term care institutions. Canada needs to develop a publicly managed community-based system of primary care to provide integrated care for the frail elderly. The authors describe such a model, which would have clinical and financial responsibility for the full range of health and social services required by this population. This model would represent a major challenge and change for the existing system. Demonstration projects are needed to evaluate its cost-effectiveness and address issues raised by its introduction.     

中国特色卫生财政制度框架与国家健康照顾责任主体

改革开放30年来,中国特色公共财政制度框架建设取得显著成绩,卫生财政制度框架是公共财政制度框架建设与深化医药卫生体制改革的重要组成部分。本文首次简要描述中国特色卫生财政制度框架范围内容,勾勒卫生财政制度框架的总体图画与基本特征。基本结论是,国家承担全体公民健康照顾的主体责任,基本医疗卫生服务是＂准公共产品＂。卫生财政制度框架范围广泛,内容多样,最基础、最关键和最困难的是医疗财政制度建设。     

Improving physician prescribing practices: bridge over troubled waters.

The amelioration of drug prescribing practices holds out the prospect of improving health outcomes without increasing health care spending or the demands on hospital and ambulatory services. The challenge is to permit prescribers to assert their leadership as patient advocates while addressing the need for greater support in therapeutic decision making. Best practice includes the optimal use of drug and nondrug therapies and must be supported by research and the timely dissemination of information. The individualization of drug therapy will remain critical to quality prescribing and will depend on the appropriate preparation of prescribers for clinical decision making. The principal issues in improving prescribing practices were addressed at a workshop held by the CMA in Ottawa in October 1995, documents from which will be published in CMAJ, beginning with this issue (see pages 635 to 640). These issues deserve consideration by everyone with a stake in both cost-effectiveness and quality of care.     

Assisted reproductive technology treatment costs of a live birth: an age-stratified cost-outcome study of treatment in Australia

OBJECTIVES: To calculate the cost of assisted reproductive technology (ART) treatment cycles and resultant live-birth events. DESIGN: Cost-outcome study based on a decision analysis model of significant clinical and economic outcomes of ART. SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS: All non-donor ART treatments initiated in Australia in 2002. Treatment cycles, maternal age and birth outcome data were obtained from the Australian and New Zealand Assisted Reproduction Database. Direct health care costs were obtained from fertility centres, and included government, private insurer and patient costs. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Average health care cost of non-donor, fresh and frozen embryo ART treatment cycles. Average and age-specific costs per live-birth event following ART treatment. RESULTS: Average health care cost per non-donor ART live-birth event was 32,903 US dollars (range, 24,809 US dollars for women < 30 years to 97,884 US dollars for women > or = 40 years). The cost per live birth for women aged > or = 42 years was 182,794 US dollars. The average treatment cost of a fresh cycle was 6,940 US dollars, compared with 1,937 US dollars for a frozen embryo transfer cycle. CONCLUSIONS: Debate regarding funding for ART services has been hindered by a lack of economic studies of ART treatments and outcomes in Australia. This is the most comprehensive costing study of ART services to date in terms of resources consumed during ART treatment. It confirms that ART treatment is less cost-effective in older women. Alongside economic considerations of ART, community values, ethical judgements and clinical factors should influence policy decision-making.