Dogs are highly susceptible to H5N1 avian influenza virus

Replication of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) in dogs may facilitate their adaptation in humans; however, the data to date on H5N1 influenza virus infection in dogs are conflicting. To elucidate the susceptibility of dogs to this pathogen, we infected two groups of 6 beagles with 10⁶ 50% egg-infectious dose of H5N1 AIV A/bar-headed goose/Qinghai/3/05 (BHG/QH/3/05) intranasally (i.n.) and intratracheally (i.t.), respectively. The dogs showed disease symptoms, including anorexia, fever, conjunctivitis, labored breathing and cough, and one i.t. inoculated animal died on day 4 post-infection. Virus shedding was detected from all 6 animals inoculated i.n. and one inoculated i.t. Virus replication was detected in all animals that were euthanized on day 3 or day 5 post-infection and in the animal that died on day 4 post-infection. Our results demonstrate that dogs are highly susceptible to H5N1 AIV and may serve as an intermediate host to transfer this virus to humans.     

Vaccination of gallinaceous poultry for H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza: Current questions and new technology

Vaccination of poultry for avian influenza virus (AIV) is a complex topic as there are numerous technical, logistic and regulatory aspects which must be considered. Historically, control of high pathogenicity (HP) AIV infection in poultry has been accomplished by eradication and stamping out when outbreaks occur locally. Since the H5N1 HPAIV from Asia has spread and become enzootic, vaccination has been used on a long-term basis by some countries to control the virus, other countries have used it temporarily to aid eradication efforts, while others have not used it at all. Currently, H5N1 HPAIV is considered enzootic in China, Egypt, Viet Nam, India, Bangladesh and Indonesia. All but Bangladesh and India have instituted vaccination programs for poultry. Importantly, the specifics of these programs differ to accommodate different situations, resources, and industry structure in each country. The current vaccines most commonly used are inactivated whole virus vaccines, but vectored vaccine use is increasing. Numerous technical improvements to these platforms and novel vaccine platforms for H5N1 vaccines have been reported, but most are not ready to be implemented in the field.     

The avian and mammalian host range of highly pathogenic avian H5N1 influenza

Highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza viruses have been isolated from a number of avian and mammalian species. Despite intensive control measures the number of human and animal cases continues to increase. A more complete understanding of susceptible species and of contributing environmental and molecular factors is crucial if we are to slow the rate of new cases. H5N1 is currently endemic in domestic poultry in only a handful of countries with sporadic and unpredictable spread to other countries. Close contact of terrestrial bird or mammalian species with infected poultry/waterfowl or their biological products is the major route for interspecies transmission. Intra-species transmission of H5N1 in mammals, including humans, has taken place on a limited scale though it remains to be seen if this will change; recent laboratory studies suggest that it is indeed possible. Here we review the avian and mammalian species that are naturally susceptible to H5N1 infection and the molecular factors associated with its expanded host range.     

Genetic characterization of two low pathogenic avian influenza virus H5N1 isolates from Ontario, Canada

Genomes of two low pathogenic H5N1 avian influenza (LPAI) viruses, A/Turkey/ON/84/1983 and A/Mallard/ON/499/2005 from Ontario, Canada were cloned and genetically characterized. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the Canadian isolates cluster with other North American AIVs and are distinct from the Euro-Asian H5N1 isolates. Individual gene comparisons demonstrated that the Ontario isolates were most similar to the viruses isolated from around the same time period and geographical area. A long deletion of 22 amino acids was identified in the stalk region of NA of A/Turkey/ON/84/1983 isolate, a characteristic mutation related to its adaptation to domestic birds. To our knowledge A/Turkey/ON/84/1983 genomic sequence is the first and only available entire genomic sequence of a H5N1 AIV from domestic birds in Canada and USA. This work is a joint collaboration between the principal investigators Davor Ojkic and Shayan Sharif.     

Prevention and control of highly pathogenic avian influenza with particular reference to H5N1

Highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses of the H5N1 subtype emerged in Far East Asia in 1996 and spread in three continents in a period of 10 or less years. Before this event, avian influenza infections caused by highly pathogenic viruses had occurred in many different countries, causing minor or major outbreaks, and had always been eradicated.     

Intranasal administration of adjuvant‐combined vaccine protects monkeys from challenge with the highly pathogenic influenza A H5N1 virus

The effectiveness in cynomolgus macaques of intranasal administration of an influenza A H5N1 pre‐pandemic vaccine combined with synthetic double‐stranded RNA (polyI/polyC12U) as an adjuvant was examined. The monkeys were immunized with the adjuvant‐combined vaccine on weeks 0, 3, and 5, and challenged with the homologous virus 2 weeks after the third immunization. After the second immunization, the immunization induced vaccine‐specific salivary IgA and serum IgG antibodies, as detected by ELISA. The serum IgG antibodies present 2 weeks after the third immunization not only had high neutralizing activity against the homologous virus, they also neutralized significantly heterologous influenza A H5N1 viruses. The vaccinated animals were protected completely from the challenge infection with the homologous virus. These results suggest that intranasal immunization with the Double stranded RNA‐combined influenza A H5N1 vaccine induce mucosal IgA and serum IgG antibodies which could protect humans from homologous influenza A H5N1 viruses which have a pandemic potential. J. Med. Virol. 82:1754–1761, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Serologic and genetic characterization analyses of a highly pathogenic influenza virus (H5N1) isolated from an infected man in Shenzhen

Highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus caused a wave of outbreaks in China during 2005--2006, resulting in a total of 20 cases of human infection in 14 provinces of China. On June16, 2006, a case of H5N1 human infection was confirmed in Shenzhen. The virus isolated from the patient, A/Guangdong/2/06, was characterized genetically and the relationship between the tracheal virus load and the antibody titer of the infected man was analyzed. Serological analysis confirmed that the patient's neutralizating antibodies had been generated 2 weeks after the onset of symptoms. The patient's serum antibodies could efficiently neutralize A/Guandong/2/06 infectivity in vitro. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the H5N1 virus of Shenzhen belonged to subclade 2.3.4, which contained viruses that were mainly responsible for the outbreaks in domestic poultry and in the cases of human infection in southern China. Homology and molecular characterization analysis revealed that all the segments of Shenzhen H5N1 virus still belonged to avian segments. Several specific amino acid residue mutations were detected.     

Evolution of highly pathogenic avian influenza (H5N1) virus populations in Vietnam between 2007 and 2010

We report on the genetic analysis of 213 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses isolated from poultry in Vietnam between 2007 and 2010. Phylogenetic analyses of the viral genomes revealed 38 distinct viral genotypes, 29 were novel and 9 were reported in Vietnam or neighboring countries in recent years. Viruses from only six genotypes persisted beyond one season or year. Thus, most reassortant viruses were transient, suggesting that such genotypes lacked significant fitness advantages. Viruses with clade 2.3.2.1 HA were re-introduced into Vietnam in 2009 and their prevalence rose steeply towards the end of 2010. Clade 2.3.4-like viruses (genotype V) were predominant in northern Vietnam and caused the majority of zoonotic infections, whereas clade 1.1 (genotype Z) viruses were only detected in the Mekong delta region, in southern Vietnam. Antigenic analysis of representative viruses from the four clades indicated substantial drift.     

人感染高致病性禽流感病毒H5N1尸体解剖病理分析

目的探讨人感染禽流感死亡病例尸体解剖组织的病理学特征。方法尸体解剖1例人感染H5NI高致病性禽流感病毒死亡病例,对其心、肺、肝、脾、肾和大脑等组织进行光镜观察,对肺组织进行了组织化学和免疫组织化学表型以及电镜观察。结果人感染禽流感的主要病变为双肺弥漫性肺泡损伤,透明膜形成,以及多灶性出血。肺泡腔内充满淡红粉染物（即水肿液）和不等量的各种炎细胞,炎细胞以淋巴细胞、单核细胞、浆细胞和少许中性粒细胞以及吞噬细胞为主。肺泡壁血管广泛性扩张淤血,部分肺泡壁透明膜形成。免疫组织化学染色显示：炎细胞主要以T淋巴细胞和单核细胞为主。结论人感染禽流感病理形态学改变以肺部最明显,主要为双肺弥漫性肺泡损伤,急性弥漫性渗出性病变,渗出的细胞以T淋巴细胞和单核细胞为主。肺部广泛性实变、肺水肿、肺出血导致呼吸窘迫是本病的主要死因。     

Transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus in Pekin ducks is significantly reduced by a genetically distant H5N2 vaccine

Domestic ducks play an important role in the epidemiology of H5N1 avian influenza. Although it is known that vaccines that have a high homology with the challenge virus are able to prevent infection in ducks, little is yet known about the ability of genetically more distant vaccines in preventing infection, disease, and transmission. Here we study the effect of a widely used H5N2 vaccine (A/Chicken/Mexico/232/94/CPA) on the transmission of H5N1 virus (A/Chicken/China/1204/04) in ducks. The quantitative analyses show that despite the low level of homology between the virus and vaccine strain transmission was significantly reduced two weeks after a single or double vaccination. Mortality and disease rates were reduced markedly already one week after a single vaccination.     

Characterization of a highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus sublineage in poultry seized at ports of entry into Vietnam

Highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 virus was detected in poultry seized at two ports of entry located in Lang Son Province, Vietnam. Sequence analysis of the hemagglutinin (HA) genes from five H5N1 virus isolates and ten PCR amplicons from chicken cloacal samples revealed their close phylogenetic relationship to clade 7 H5N1 HA genes. However, these HA genes exhibited extensive genetic divergence at both the nucleotide and amino acid levels in comparison to previously described clade 7 viruses; e.g., A/chicken/Shanxi/2/2006. In addition, hemagglutination inhibition tests revealed antigenic differences between these and previously isolated H5N1 viruses from Vietnam. These results indicate that viruses with clade 7 HA are evolving rapidly in poultry in Southeast Asia.     

Induction of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte and antibody responses against highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection in mice by inoculation of apathogenic H5N1 influenza virus particles inactivated with formalin

We investigated whether a vaccine derived from an apathogenic reassortant type A H5N1 influenza strain could induce immune responses in vivo that mediated protection from highly pathogenic avian influenza virus infection in mice. After two subcutaneous immunizations with formalin-inactivated H5N1 whole virus particles (whole particle vaccine), significant killing specific for cells presenting a nucleoprotein peptide from the vaccine strain of the virus was observed. Similar vaccination with viruses treated with ether and formalin, which are commonly used for humans as ether-split vaccines, induced little or no cytotoxic T-cell response. Furthermore, whole particle vaccines of the apathogenic H5N1 strain were more effective than ether-split vaccines at inducing antibody production able to neutralize a highly pathogenic H5N1 strain. Finally, whole particle vaccines of H5N1 protected mice against infection by an H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus more effectively than did ether-split vaccines. These results suggest that formalin-inactivated virus particles of apathogenic strains are effective for induction of both cytotoxic T-lymphocyte and antibody responses against highly pathogenic avian influenza viruses in vivo, resulting in protection from infection by a highly pathogenic H5N1 virus.     

Pathogenicity of the Korean H5N8 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus in commercial domestic poultry species

In 2014, the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) virus H5N8 triggered outbreaks in wild birds and poultry farms in South Korea. In the present study, we investigated the pathogenicity of the H5N8 HPAI virus, belonging to the clade 2.3.4.4, in different species of poultry. For this, we examined clinical signs and viral shedding levels following intranasal inoculation of the virus in 3-week-old commercial layer chickens and quails, 10-week-old Korean native chickens, and 8-week-old Muscovy ducks. Intranasal inoculation with 10^6.0 viruses at 50% egg-infective dose resulted in 100% mortality in the layer chickens (8/8) and quails (4/4), but 60% and 0% deaths in the Korean native chickens (3/5) and Muscovy ducks (0/4), respectively. In addition, transmission of the inoculated virus to contact-exposed birds was evident in all the species used in this study. Based on our results, we conclude that the H5N8 HPAI virus has lower pathogenicity and transmissibility in poultry species compared with previously reported H5N1 HPAI viruses.     

Age at infection affects the pathogenicity of Asian highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1 viruses in ducks

The Asian highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 viruses have changed from producing no disease or mild respiratory infections in ducks to some strains causing systemic disease and death. Differences in pathogenicity between four of these viruses as well as the effect of host age on the outcome of infection were studied in ducks. Three of the viruses were highly lethal in 2-week-old ducks and induced severe neurological dysfunction. Neurological signs were also observed in 5-week-old ducks inoculated with one of these viruses; however mortality was low. The fourth virus studied did not induce neurological signs in 2-week-old ducks, but did produce moderate mortality. This virus caused no clinical signs or death in 5-week-old ducks. All viruses studied were isolated from oropharyngeal and cloacal swabs, and also from brain, heart, lung and muscle tissues, demonstrating systemic infection. All viruses evaluated transmitted efficiently to contact ducks. Phylogenetic analysis of the viruses studied and other Asian H5N1 HPAI viruses with diverse pathogenicity in ducks, showed changes in several genes, but none clearly associated with pathogenicity. In conclusion, the pathogenicity of circulating H5N1 HPAI viruses in ducks varies depending on the virus strain and the age of the duck and correlates with the level of viral replication in tissues. High titers of virus in organs, high viral shedding, and variable mortality enable ducks to circulate H5N1 HPAI viruses.     

Immune responses to infection with H5N1 influenza virus

Influenza A H5N1 viruses remain a substantial threat to global public health. In particular, the expanding genetic diversity of H5N1 viruses and the associated risk for human adaptation underscore the importance of better understanding host immune responses that may protect against disease or infection. Although much emphasis has been placed on investigating early virus–host interactions and the induction of innate immune responses, little is known of the consequent adaptive immune response to H5N1 virus infection. In this review, we describe the H5N1 virus-specific and cross-reactive antibody and T cell responses in humans and animal models. Data from limited studies suggest that although initially robust, there is substantial waning of the serum antibody responses in survivors of H5N1 virus infection. Characterization of monoclonal antibodies generated from memory B cells of survivors of H5N1 virus infection has provided an understanding of the fine specificity of the human antibody response to H5N1 virus infection and identified strategies for immunotherapy. Human T cell responses induced by infection with seasonal influenza viruses are directed to relatively conserved internal proteins and cross-react with the H5N1 subtype. A role for T cell-based heterosubtypic immunity against H5N1 viruses is suggested in animal studies. Further studies on adaptive immune responses to H5N1 virus infection in both humans and animals are needed to inform the design of optimal immunological treatment and prevention modalities.     

整合深圳人源H5N1禽流感病毒株血凝素蛋白的假型逆转录病毒的构建

目的 构建整合深圳人源H5N1禽流感病毒(avian influenza virus,AIV)株血凝素(HA)的假型逆转录病毒.方法 利用逆转录聚合酶链反应(RT-PCR)技术扩增深圳人源H5N1禽流感病毒株HA基因,将扩增产物与pGEM-T载体连接,在经过酶切及测序鉴定后,通过Sal Ⅰ与BamHⅠ酶切位点将HA基因克隆至真核表达载体CMV/R,然后协同转移载体pHR-Luc、包装载体pCMV&8.2通过磷酸钙共沉淀法转染人胚肾细胞(293T),72 h后收集假病毒上清,超速离心后通过Western blot鉴定假病毒颗粒HA、P24蛋白的表达,同时测定HIV-HA假病毒对犬肾传代细胞(MDCK)、宫颈癌上皮细胞(HeLa)、中国仓鼠卵母细胞(CHO)和293T等4种不同细胞株的感染活性.结果 深圳人源HSN1禽流感病毒株A/Shenzhen/406H/06属于subelade2.3,其HA基因开放读码框编码567个氨基酸,在GenBank登录号为EF137706.经Sal Ⅰ与BamH Ⅰ双酶切鉴定HA基因成功克隆至真核表达载体CMV/R.将pHR-Luc、pCMV&8.2、CMV-HA共转染293T细胞后,所收集的假病毒经Western blot证实假病毒颗粒不仅含有HIV基质蛋白P24,还可以整合AIV HA蛋白,并且能够由前体蛋白HA0裂解为具有生物活性的HA1和HA2蛋白.HIV-HA假病毒可以感染MDCK、HeLa、CHO、293T等4种靶细胞,表明所构建的假病毒具有感染活力,且具有广泛的宿主范围.结论 本研究成功构建整合A/Shenzhert/406H/06 HA蛋白的假型逆转录病毒,并且HIV-HA假病毒具有良好的感染活性,从而为下一步筛选中和抗体及抗原表位分析奠定基础.     

Transmission of influenza A/H5N1 viruses in mammals

Highly pathogenic avian H5N1 influenza A viruses occasionally infect humans and cause severe respiratory disease and fatalities. Currently, these viruses are not efficiently transmitted from person to person, although limited human-to-human transmission may have occurred. Nevertheless, further adaptation of avian H5N1 influenza A viruses to humans and/or reassortment with human influenza A viruses may result in aerosol transmissible viruses with pandemic potential. Although the full range of factors that modulate the transmission and replication of influenza A viruses in humans are not yet known, we are beginning to understand some of the molecular changes that may allow H5N1 influenza A viruses to transmit via aerosols or respiratory droplets among mammals. A better understanding of the biological basis and genetic determinants that confer transmissibility to H5N1 influenza A viruses in mammals is important to enhance our pandemic preparedness.     

Characterization of H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza virus strains isolated from migratory waterfowl in Mongolia on the way back from the southern Asia to their northern territory

H5N1 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) viruses were isolated from dead wild waterfowl at Khunt, Erkhel, Doityn Tsagaan, Doroo, and Ganga Lakes in Mongolia in July 2005, May 2006, May 2009, July 2009, and May 2010, respectively. The isolates in 2005 and 2006 were classified into genetic clade 2.2, and those in 2009 and 2010 into clade 2.3.2. A/whooper swan/Mongolia/6/2009 (H5N1) experimentally infected ducks and replicated systemically with higher mortality than that of the isolates in 2005 and 2006. Intensive surveillance of avian influenza in migratory waterfowl flying from their nesting lakes in Siberia to Mongolia in every autumn indicate that HPAI viruses have not perpetuated at their nesting lakes until 2009. The present results demonstrate that wild waterfowl were sporadically infected with H5N1 HPAI viruses prevailing in domestic poultry in the southern Asia and died in Mongolia on the way back to their northern territory in spring.     

Substrate specificity of avian influenza H5N1 neuraminidase

AIM: To characterise neuraminidase(NA) substrate specificity of avian influenza H5N1 strains from humans and birds comparing to seasonal influenza virus.METHODS: Avian influenza H5N1 strains from humans and birds were recruited for characterising their NA substrate specificity by using a modified commercial fluorescence Amplex Red assay. This method can identify the preference of α2,6-linked sialic acid or α2,3-linked sialic acid. Moreover, to avoid the bias of input virus, reverse genetic virus using NA gene from human isolated H5N1 were generated and used to compare with the seasonal influenza virus. Lastly, the substrate specificity profile was further confirmed by high-performance liquid chromatography(HPLC) analysis of the enzymatic product. RESULTS: The H5N1 NA showed higher activity on α2,3-linked sialic acid than α2,6-linked(P 0.0001). To compare the NA activity between the H5N1 and seasonal influenza viruses, reverse genetic viruses carrying the NA of H5N1 viruses and NA from a seasonal H3N2 virus was generated. In these reverse genetic viruses, the NA activity of the H5N1 showed markedly higher activity against α2,3-linked sialic acid than that of the H3N2 virus, whereas the activities on α2,6-linkage were comparable. Interestingly, NA from an H5N1 human isolate that was previously shown to have heamagglutinin(HA) with dual specificity showed reduced activity on α2,3-linkage. To confirm the substrate specificity profile, HPLC analytic of enzymatic product was performed. Similar to Amplex red assay, H5N1 virus showed abundant preference on α2,3-linked sialic acid.CONCLUSION: H5N1 virus maintains the avian specific NA and NA changes may be needed to accompany changes in HA receptor preference for the viral adaptation to humans.