神经肌电图检查对肘管综合征与腕尺管综合征鉴别诊断的价值

目的探讨神经肌电图检查在肘管综合征(CuTS)与腕尺管综合征(UTS)鉴别诊断中的应用价值。方法对35例单侧上肢临床症状、体征符合CuTS或UTS的患者进行尺神经、正中神经远端运动潜伏期(DML)、运动传导速度(MCV)、感觉传导速度(SCV)、波幅(AMP)及尺神经肘部寸移电位检测;尺神经、正中神经所支配的肌肉肌电图(EMG)检测。结果 35例患者中,CuTS 29例(83%),UTS 4例(11%),正常2例(6%),总异常率94%。结论神经肌电图检测可明确鉴别肘管综合征与腕尺管综合征,为临床诊断及治疗提供依据,有重要的临床应用价值。     

吉兰-巴雷综合征患者的神经电生理特点

目的 探讨吉兰-巴雷综合征(GBS)患者的神经电生理特点.方法 对20例吉兰-巴雷综合征患者进行肌电图(EMG)、运动神经传导速度(MCV)、F波及感觉神经传导速度(SCV)检测,共检测160条运动神经、120条感觉神经及60块肌肉,并对结果进行分析.结果 上、下肢神经远端潜伏期延长占54.4%,MCV减慢占68.8%,F波异常占95.0%,SCV减慢占70.8%,EMG提示神经源性损害占70.0%.结论 GBS为广泛的周围神经损害,存在以脱髓鞘为主伴有轴索变性的神经电生理改变.神经电生理检测对GBS的诊断具有极为重要的诊断价值.     

糖尿病周围神经病患者上肢受累神经的分布特点

目的 探讨糖尿病周围神经病(DPN)患者上肢受累神经的分布特点.方法 应用神经电图对98例DPN患者及32名正常对照者的正中神经、尺神经及桡神经的感觉神经传导速度(SCV)及波幅(SNAP)、运动神经传导速度(MCV)及波幅(CAMP)进行检测,分析DPN患者上肢受累神经的分布特点.结果 (1)与正常对照组比较,DPN组正中神经、尺神经及桡神经SCV和MCV明显降低(P<0.05～0.01);(2)DPN组正中神经SCV、SNAP、MCV及CAMP的异常率明显高于尺神经及桡神经(均P<0.05).结论 DPN患者上肢正中神经更易受累.     

遗传性压力易感性周围神经病临床神经电生理检测的意义

目的探讨遗传性压力易感性周围神经病（hereditary neuropathy with liability to pressure palsies，HNPP）的临床神经电生理改变。方法对1个HNPP家系的先证者及5例家系患者进行神经传导速度检测，并对先证者进行病理组织学检查。结果先证者正中神经、尺神经、腓肠神经感觉神经传导速度（SCV）均减慢；正中神经、尺神经、腓总神经运动神经传导速度（MCV）均减慢。病理结果提示腊肠样结构改变（部分有髓神经纤维的髓鞘出现显著增厚，符合髓鞘肥厚性周围神经病的病理改变，提示HNPP）。共检查家系中5例患者的36条神经。感觉神经传导检测结果：30条神经SCV异常。其中正中神经异常率12／12；尺神经异常率10／12；腓肠神经异常率8／12。感觉纤维最易累及的神经为正中神经，其次为尺神经、腓肠神经。正中神经SCV平均减慢35．1％，平均37．7m／s；尺神经SCV平均减慢31．6％，平均39．7m／s；腓肠神经SCV平均减慢19．4％，平均38.6m／s。受损程度以正中神经最重，其次为尺神经、腓肠神经。运动神经传导检测结果：运动神经诱发电位潜伏期延长者21条。所查神经远端MCV异常率24／36，其中尺神经异常8条。正中神经异常7条，腓总神经异常9条。减慢的尺神经沟下至腕部MCV平均39．7m／s，减慢31．6％；减慢的正中神经平均50，0m／s，减慢11，3％；减慢的腓总神经平均39．3m／s，减慢21．2％；尺神经沟上至沟下异常率75．0％，平均40m／s，平均减慢34，4％；腓骨小头上下异常率33．3％。减慢的MCV平均35，3m／s，平均减慢31％。运动纤维最易累及的神经为腓总神经，其次为尺神经、正中神经。结论HNPP患者可伴有大部分神经传导障碍，可靠的神经电生理检查是诊断HNPP的重要依据，在无症状的HNPP患者及其家属也可出现神经传导障碍。在HNPP患者，嵌压处神经更易受损。     

不同类型前置术治疗尺神经肘管卡压综合征

目的 对比不同类型前置术治疗尺神经肘管卡压综合征的临床疗效.方法 回顾性分析278例尺神经肘管卡压综合征病人的临床资料,按McGowan法分级后,随机行尺神经皮下前置术(皮下前置术)139例,"Z"字形改良肌下前置术(肌下前置术)139例.检测尺神经横截面积(CSA)、神经运动传导速度(MCV),感觉传导速度(SCV )、神经干动作电位(NAP)变化,比较两种术式的疗效.结果 McGowan Ⅰ级病人,术后 CSA,MCV,SCV,NAP均较术前明显改善(P <0.05),但两种术式间各参数和术后优良率差异均无统计学意义(P > 0.05).McGowan Ⅱ,Ⅲ级病人术后CSA,MCV,SCV,NAP均较术前明显改善(P<0.05),且两种术式间各参数和术后优良率差异均有统计学意义(P <0.05).结论 皮下前置术适于尺神经肘管卡压综合征McGowan Ⅰ级病人,而肌下前置术更适用于McGowan Ⅱ,Ⅲ级病人.     

神经电生理联合MRI在尺神经卡压综合征诊疗中的应用

目的 探讨神经电生理联合MRI在尺神经卡压综合征中的应用价值.方法 回顾性分析470例尺神经卡压综合征病人的临床资料,均采用尺神经显微减压术治疗.病人手术前后进行神经电生理及MRI检查,检测并分析不同时间点病侧、健侧的感觉传导速度(sensory conduction velocity,SCV)、运动传导速度(movement conduction velocity,MCV)和尺神经横截面积(cross sectional area,CSA).采用MRI观察健侧和病侧尺神经结构.结果 健侧和术前病侧的MCV、SCV、CSA差异均具有统计学意义(均P ＜0.05).术前和术后4周病侧的MCV、SCV、CSA差异均具有统计学意义(均P＜0.05).MCV与CSA呈负相关(r=-0.813),SCV与CSA呈负相关(r=-0.844).MRI显示:受损尺神经明显肿胀,神经呈现高低不等的信号,肿胀部位(内上髁沟、尺侧腕屈肌)明显受到旋前圆肌、指浅屈肌、肘管、屈肌总腱等组织卡压.结论 神经电生理适用于早期诊断尺神经卡压综合征,MRI适用于制定手术方案,两者联合有助于评价手术效果,提高手术疗效.     

神经传导速度测定在穴位电针治疗腕管综合征疗效评价中的应用

目的通过神经传导检查观察穴位电针治疗腕管综合征治疗效果。方法选择腕管综合征病人20例,治疗前、后分别进行神经传导速度、动作电位波幅测定。结果正中神经指1-腕、指3-腕感觉神经传导速度(SCV)、感觉神经动作电位波幅(SNAP)治疗前、后比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。运动神经传导速度(MCV)、运动神经动作电位波幅(MNAP)治疗前、后比较,差异有统计学意义(P<0.05)。结论穴位电针治疗腕管综合征临床有效,神经传导检查可以作为腕管综合征诊断及疗效评价手段之一。     

正中神经和尺神经分段刺激在慢性炎性脱髓鞘性多发性神经病中的电生理研究

目的 探讨运动神经传导速度(MCV)、复合肌肉动作电位(CMAP)与肌力减退的关系和传导阻滞(CB)在慢性炎性脱髓鞘性多发性神经病(chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyradiculoneuritis,CIDP)中的表现特点.方法 30例CIDP患者在进行常规MCV、远端潜伏期(DML)、F波、感觉神经传导速度(SCV)、肌电图(EMG)测定的基础上,在正中神经采用由远到近的“腕-肘-腋-Erb's点”4点3段刺激,尺神经采用由远到近的“腕-肘下-肘上-腋-Erb's点”5点4段刺激,记录各段刺激后CMAP各参数及MCV的变化.结果 CMAP波幅衰减、面积衰减、时程增加以及MCV减慢与临床肌力减退无相关性,dCMAP波幅与上肢远端肌力呈正相关;患者中80.00％在正中神经、73.33％在尺神经发现了1个或多个节段的CB,且出现节段无明显选择性.结论 dCMAP波幅降低与CIDP患者肌力减退有相关性.在CIDP中CB出现率高,且较为弥散地在各节段中出现.     

CMT1A型与遗传性压迫易感性周围神经病的神经电生理对比研究

目的 探讨腓骨肌萎缩症1A型(CMT1A)与遗传性压力易感性神经病(HNPP)在神经电生理检测的不同特点.方法 记录9例CMT1A型和12例HNPP患者的临床特点,对两组患者进行了正中神经、尺神经、胫神经、腓总神经运动神经传导速度检测和正中神经、尺神经、胫神经、腓浅神经、腓肠神经感觉神经传导速度检测.结果 CMT1A型患者存在广泛的电生理异常,四肢周围神经NCV都明显减慢或消失,而且感觉和运动减慢程度一致,并且对任何节段周围神经的影响程度相同;HNPP患者的电生理特点是广泛的SCV不同程度减慢,而MCV减慢相对较轻且不同节段程度不同,主要是末端潜伏期值延长,以及明显的运动神经易卡压部位传导阻滞.结论 神经电生理检测是该两种疾病诊断及鉴别诊断的重要手段,短节段电位检测可证实HNPP的嵌压部位.     

肘管综合征的神经电生理分析

目的 探讨肘管综合征的神经电生理特点.方法 对70例76侧经临床及手术证实为肘管综合征的患者进行神经肌电图检测及分析.结果 70例76侧肢体,尺神经感觉神经小指到腕传导速度、感觉神经动作电位波幅、尺神经运动神经肘下5cm到肘上5cm传导速度和波幅、肘下到腕传导速度和波幅等6项指标异常率分别为:42%、47%、78%、79%(包括肘上5cm到肘下5cmMCV)、28%、14%.结论 神经肌电图检查为诊断肘管综合征的可靠手段,可早期确诊及准确定位受损部位及损伤程度、判断愈后、指导治疗.     

Hepatic Considerations in the Use of Antiepileptic Drugs

Summary: Virtually all of the major antiepileptic drugs (AEDs) can cause hepatotoxicity, although fatal hepatic reactions are rare. The mechanisms, incidences, and risk profiles for such reactions differ from drug to drug. With carbamazepine and phenytoin, hepatotoxicity may be due to drug hypersensitivity. Although the profiles of patients at risk have not been well-defined for these two antiepileptic drugs, it would appear from reports in the literature that older adolescents and adults are at higher risk than children of developing serious or fatal hepatotoxicity. Once hepatotoxicity develops, mortality rates are 10–38% with phenytoin and 25% for carbamazepine. The risk profile for valproate fatal hepatotoxicity has been more clearly defined. Those at primary risk of fatal hepatic dysfunction are children under the age of 2 years who are receiving multiple anticonvulsants and also have significant medical problems in addition to severe epilepsy. The risk is considerably lower for patients over the age of 2 years on valproate monotherapy. In contrast to the risk profile with other AEDs, adults receiving valproate as monotherapy have the lowest risk of hepatotoxicity. Fatal hepatic dysfunction coincident with valproate may be the result of aberrant drug metabolism. Concomitant use of AEDs that induce microsomal P450 enzymes (e.g., phenytoin and phenobarbital) may enhance the production of a toxic metabolite, and hence the greater risk of hepatotoxicity with polypharmacy.     

Vascular Malformations and Epilepsy: Clinical Considerations and Basic Mechanisms

Summary: Vascular malformations (VMs) are associated with epilepsy. The natural history of the various VMs, clinical presentation, and tendency to provoke epilepsy determine treatment strategies. Investigations have probed the mechanisms of epileptogenesis associated with these lesions. Electrophysiologic changes are associated with epileptogenic cortex adjacent to VMs. Putative pathophysiologic mechanisms of epileptogenesis include neuronal cell loss, glial proliferation and abnormal glial physiology, altered neurotransmitter levels, free radical formation, and aberrant second messenger physiology.     

Diagnostic Difficulties and Treatment Implications

Summary: Differentiation between types of epileptic seizures has been aided in recent years by the introduction of intensive neurodiagnostic techniques and the development of increasingly detailed classification systems. Paradoxically, these developments have not simplified the task of matching the appropriate antiepileptic drug to a particular seizure type. It is reasonable to assume that anticonvulsant drugs will have different effects on different types of seizures, but faulty, circular reasoning can enter the picture if one also assumes that responses of seizures to different drugs signify different seizure types. There are several examples of differential diagnoses that can fall prey to this problem, including the diagnosis between partial seizures with secondary generalization and generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the diagnosis between complex partial seizures and absence seizures with automatisms, among others. Considerations of etiology in future classification systems can further complicate the problem: should one then choose an anticonvulsant drug on the basis of individual seizure type or on the basis of the type of epilepsy? Ramifications of this issue extend even to the drug approval process. Official sanction is not given for use of a drug for a seizure type not included in the original efficacy studies, even if later scientific evidence shows that seizure type to be related to a type that is included. New trials must be undertaken. These problems arise from how we choose to classify seizures.     

Cognitive Dysfunction Associated with Antiepileptic Drug Therapy

Summary: Epilepsy is frequently associated with cognitive dysfunction. However, the reasons for this correlation are unclear. Possible influential factors include patient age; duration, frequency, etiology, and type of seizures; hereditary factors; psychosocial issues; and antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy. Whereas many of these factors are beyond the physician's control, AED therapy is one element that can be addressed in treatment decisions by recognizing the potential cognitive effects of particular AEDs. For example, phenobarbital impairs memory and concentration; phenytoin affects attention, problem solving ability, and performance of visuomotor tasks. In contrast, carbamazepine may affect concentration, while valproate would appear to have minimal effects on cognition. Moreover, cognitive effects of AEDs are amplified with coadministration of multiple anticonvulsants (polytherapy). A review of studies on the cognitive effects of monotherapy with AEDs, as opposed to those of polytherapy, provides evidence that drug-related cognitive dysfunction can be reversed if patients are switched to a simpler therapeutic regimen. Future research should be directed toward developing reliable measures for assessing and monitoring cognition, and understanding the particular cognitive side effects of each AED. Physicians also need to revise their opinions about which side effects are "tolerable" for epileptic patients.     

Epilepsy and anomalies of neuronal migration: MRI and clinical aspects

Neuronal migration disorders are the result of disturbed brain development. In such disorders, neurons are abnormally located. In diagnosing these conditions, magnetic resonance imaging is superior to any other imaging technique. This enables us to improve our knowledge of the clinical correlates of neuronal migration. With reference to migrational disorder, a retrospective study of all 303 patients with epileptic seizures referred for magnetic resonance imaging during a 3-year period was performed, 13 patients (aged 12-41, mean age 27) were identified. They represent 4.3% of the entire study group. Of the patients with known epilepsy, 6.7% and of the mentally retarded, 13.7% had migrational disorders. Four patients had schizencephaly as the dominant finding, one was classified as hemimegalencephaly, 2 had isolated heterotopias, and 6 had localized pachy- and/or poly-microgyria. The clinical pictures are complex. Ectopias of grey matter are recognised foci of epilepsy, but from an epileptological and a clinical viewpoint little attention has been given to these disorders. The present study shows that malmigration is not rare in epilepsy patients, especially not in the mentally retarded.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy and Utilization in Children

Summary: Carbamazepine is effective for preventing partial and generalized tonic-clonic seizures in children. Although absence epilepsies are more common in children than adults, an estimated 80% of children with epilepsy have seizure types or epilepsies that are potentially responsive to carbamazepine. The differential diagnosis of ictal staring is an especially important issue in children because absence and atypical absence seizures are more prevalent in children than adults. Age-related pharmacokinetic differences and drug interactions are major considerations in children. On average, children have higher clearance rates of carbamazepine, shorter half-lives, and higher ratios of carbamazepine-10, 11-epoxide to carbamazepine than adults. In addition, children with severe epilepsy are more likely to require multiple-drug therapy, which can lead to complex drug interactions. When carbamazepine is administered along with valproate, drug protein binding interactions can cause intermittent side effects.     

Carbamazepine Efficacy in Adults With Partial and Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures

Summary: Carbamazepine and phenytoin are drugs of choice in initial monotherapy for adult partial and secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures. These designations reflect the results of the Veterans Administration Epilepsy Cooperative Study Group of 1985. An earlier comparative study of carbamazepine and phenytoin by Ramsay and associates found both drugs equally effective in controlling new-onset seizures. Among the advantages of carbamazepine is that it causes relatively few cognitive and dysmorphic side effects. Its disadvantages are its unavailability in parenteral formulation and its metabolic autoinduction. The latter must be compensated for by planned dosage increases to maintain therapeutic plasma steady-state levels during the first 2 or 3 months of treatment. Carbamazepine is judged a drug of choice in the treatment of these secondarily generalized tonic-clonic seizures, and the drug of choice in children, adolescents, and women susceptible to the dysmorphic side effects associated with other anticonvulsant agents.     

Etiologic and Preventive Aspects of Epilepsy in the Child–Bridging the Gap Between Laboratory and Clinic

Summary: Four broad categories of basic phenomena are pertinent to developing ways to prevent epilepsy. These include mechanisms of epileptogenesis, ictal initiation and temporary entrainment by the seizure discharge of normally functioning brain, seizure propagation, and control mechanisms that function both to restrain the cascade of epileptic events culminating in a seizure and to arrest the epileptic event and restore the interictal state. In newborns and children, hypoxia-ischemia is a major factor leading to epileptogenesis, and several schemes are proposed to classify, quantify, and prevent hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. Control mechanisms must be better understood in order to develop prophylactic recommendations for epilepsy, and an experimental model of "kindling antagonism" may increase our understanding of these. Programs of prevention of seizures in children will evolve only if basic researchers and clinicians work productively together to develop an adequate understanding of factors important in epileptogenesis and antiepileptogenic control mechanisms.     

Predisposing and Causative Factors in Childhood Epilepsy

Summary: We review information from large studies of defined populations, examining the role of known factors and especially of prenatal and perinatal factors in contributing to nonfebrile seizure disorders of early childhood. We depend especially, but not exclusively, on the recently completed analyses from the Collaborative Perinatal Project of the National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke, the NCPP. About 4% of children in the NCPP who had at least one non-febrile nonsymptomatic seizure by the age of 7 years had a previous seizure during acute neurologic illness, such as meningitis or during the acute illness after trauma. Many such seizures should potentially be preventable. Of children with seizures, 10% had had a neonatal seizure and 13% had had a febrile seizure. Among the hundreds of prenatal and perinatal factors explored as predictors of childhood seizure disorders, the principal predictors identified were congenital malformations of the fetus, cerebral and noncerebral; family history of certain neurologic disorders; and neonatal seizures. In agreement with the British National Child Development Study, labor and delivery factors in the NCPP appeared to contribute very little to childhood seizure disorders. Maldevelopment, rather than damage at birth to an initially intact nervous system, appeared to be the more common mechanism. Most seizure disorders of early childhood remained unexplained by the large set of prenatal and perinatal characteristics examined.     

Classification of methods in transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) and evolving strategy from historical approaches to contemporary innovations

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation (tES) encompasses all methods of non-invasive current application to the brain used in research and clinical practice. We present the first comprehensive and technical review, explaining the evolution of tES in both terminology and dosage over the past 100 years of research to present day. Current transcranial Pulsed Current Stimulation (tPCS) approaches such as Cranial Electrotherapy Stimulation (CES) descended from Electrosleep (ES) through Cranial Electro-stimulation Therapy (CET), Transcerebral Electrotherapy (TCET), and NeuroElectric Therapy (NET) while others like Transcutaneous Cranial Electrical Stimulation (TCES) descended from Electroanesthesia (EA) through Limoge, and Interferential Stimulation. Prior to a contemporary resurgence in interest, variations of transcranial Direct Current Stimulation were explored intermittently, including Polarizing current, Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation (GVS), and Transcranial Micropolarization. The development of these approaches alongside Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT) and pharmacological developments are considered. Both the roots and unique features of contemporary approaches such as transcranial Alternating Current Stimulation (tACS) and transcranial Random Noise Stimulation (tRNS) are discussed. Trends and incremental developments in electrode montage and waveform spanning decades are presented leading to the present day. Commercial devices, seminal conferences, and regulatory decisions are noted. We conclude with six rules on how increasing medical and technological sophistication may now be leveraged for broader success and adoption of tES.