The efficacy of magnetic resonance imaging in acute multi-ligament injuries

This study compares MRI with examination under anaesthesia to surgical findings in evaluating soft tissue injuries in acute multi-ligament knee trauma. Pre-operative MRI was done for 44 patients who underwent surgery for grade III ACL and grade III medial collateral ligament (MCL) injury. In 21 cases both ACL and MCL were treated surgically, but in 23 only ACL. Intra-operative and MRI findings were compared. Accuracy of MRI for medial meniscal tears was 88.6%, sensitivity 80%, and specificity 91.2%; accuracy for lateral meniscal tears was 72.7%, sensitivity 55% and specificity 87.5%. Accuracy and sensitivity for severity of ACL tear was 93.2% and of MCL tear 86.4%. In 88.6% of the knees, bone bruises were visible, with anterolateral femoral and posterolateral tibial bone bruise being the most common. MRI revealed no chondral lesion, but arthroscopy revealed 11. In combined ACL–MCL ruptures, the incidence of concomitant injuries is high and the injuries are best detected with MRI.     

The ACL-deficient knee: natural history and treatment options

Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament removes the major stabilizing structure to anterior tibial translation. The initial trauma may lead to meniscal and cartilage damage, predisposing the knee to early degenerative changes. Moreover, a knee with an isolated ACL rupture may have recurrent episodes of instability that can lead to a similar degenerative course. At this time, one cannot accurately predict which patients will tolerate ACL deficiency, and which patients will not. Current long-term studies support a progressive worsening condition in the ACL and meniscal deficient knees. Physical therapy together with lifestyle modifications may be necessary. Those unwilling to make these types of changes or those with associated injuries may benefit from ACL reconstruction.     

The relationship between intra-articular meniscal,chondral, and ACL lesions: finding from 1,774 knee arthroscopy patients and evaluation by gender

Knowing the relationship between diagnoses is important in knee arthroscopy in terms of defining possible treatment modalities preoperatively. The purpose of our study was to define the diagnoses made intraoperatively through knee arthroscopy and the relationships between them. We evaluated the results of knee arthroscopies performed over a 10-year period. The sites and sizes of chondral lesions, the existence of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury, and the sites of meniscal lesions were noted for a total of 1,774 patients. The relationships between these lesions were evaluated statistically. Chondral lesions and posterior medial meniscal tears were predominant in females, whereas complete ACL tears were predominant in males. ACL tears were commonly accompanied by medial and lateral meniscal bucket-handle tears. In cases with advanced chondral lesions, medial and lateral posterior meniscal and lateral anterior meniscal tears were more common. According to our results, posterior tears of the medial menisci, medial and lateral femoral condyles, lateral tibial plateau type 3 or 4 cartilage lesions, and the rate of diagnostic arthroscopy were higher in females, while middle substance and bucket-handle tears of medial menisci and total rupture of the ACL were more common in males. ACL injuries were seen to coexist with medial or lateral menisci bucket-handle tears, with no relationship between the site or size of the chondral lesions. A relationship between medial and lateral meniscal tears and the site of femoral and tibial chondral surface lesions was detected.     

Magnetic resonance imaging in the evaluation of tibial eminence fractures in adults

Proton density and T2-weighted sagittal, axial, coronal, and inversion recovery fat suppression magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sequences were reviewed in 21 adults (10 men and 11 women) with 22 tibial eminence fractures. Average patient age was 43 years (range: 19-62 years). There were 3 type I, 3 type II, 12 type III, and 4 type IV fractures. The average fracture fragment size was 21 x 23 mm, and the average displacement was 5.5 mm (range: 0-12 mm). The MRI disclosed anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) insertional avulsions in 20 (91%), distal posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) avulsions in 4 (18%), intrasubstance ACL damage in 9 (41%), intrasubstance PCL injury in 3 (14%), medial collateral ligament (MCL) tears in 9 (41%) knees, retinacular injury in 8 (36%), posterolateral corner damage in 8 (36%), medial meniscal tears in 5 (23%), and 4 (18%) had lateral meniscal tears. Occult subchondral osseous injuries were seen in the posterolateral tibial plateau in 13 (59%) knees, anterolateral femoral condyle in 4 (18%), and posteromedial tibial plateau in 5 (23%) knees. Discrete osteochondral fractures were present in 7 (32%) knees. Significant osseous, cartilaginous, meniscal, and ligamentous damage was discovered in all patients. Based on these findings, we recommend MRI evaluation of all tibial eminence fractures to accurately detect all knee damage.     

Significance of combined anterior cruciate ligament and meniscus injury]

The combined lesion of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) with simultaneous or secondary meniscal tears has severe consequences for the knee joint. By a synopsis of the literature and own experimental investigations in sheep it can be shown that in ACL deficient knees secondary meniscal lesions occur, what finally ends in osteoarthrosis. The combined lesion of the ACL and the meniscus results in a more severe damage of the joint than the sum of the single lesions. ACL reconstruction in these cases is very important, because meniscal tears cannot heal in unstable knees. On the other hand resections of the menisci have to be avoided, because the loss of these secondary stabilizers and synergists of the ACL increases the risk of joint degeneration.     

Editorial Commentary: Ramp Lesion: The Eye Sees Only What the Mind Is Prepared to Comprehend

If our consciousness is not prepared, it is difficult to identify a ramp lesion on preoperative magnetic resonance imaging due to its low sensitivity. In clinical practice, the prevalence of ramp lesion in the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)-injured knee can be up to 30%, with an increased frequency in chronic ACL injuries and in revision ACL. To identify the ramp lesion, routine arthroscopic exploration of the posteromedial portion of knee using a trans-notch view during ACL reconstruction therefore seems essential. A decrease in reoperation rate for secondary meniscectomy from 25% to 7% since 2013 was published by our department, after the adoption of a systematic repair through a posteromedial portal with a suture hook device for ramp lesions identified at the time of ACL reconstruction.     

MRI analysis of in vivo meniscal and tibiofemoral kinematics in ACL-deficient and normal knees.

The objectives of this study were to analyze simultaneously meniscal and tibiofemoral kinematics in healthy volunteers and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)-deficient patients under axial load-bearing conditions using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Ten healthy volunteers and eight ACL-deficient patients were examined with a high-field, closed MRI system. For each group, both knees were imaged at full extension and partial flexion ( approximately 45 degrees ) with a 125N compressive load applied to the foot. Anteroposterior and medial/lateral femoral and meniscal translations were analyzed following three-dimensional, landmark-matching registration. Interobserver and intraobserver reproducibilities were less than 0.8 mm for femoral translation for image processing and data analysis. The position of the femur relative to the tibia in the ACL-deficient knee was 2.6 mm posterior to that of the contralateral, normal knee at extension. During flexion from 0 degrees to 45 degrees , the femur in ACL-deficient knees translated 4.3 mm anteriorly, whereas no significant translation occurred in uninjured knees. The contact area centroid on the tibia in ACL-deficient knees at extension was posterior to that of uninjured knees. Consequently, significantly less posterior translation of the contact centroid occurred in the medial tibial condyle in ACL-deficient knees during flexion. Meniscal translation, however, was nearly the same in both groups. Axial load-bearing MRI is a noninvasive and reproducible method for evaluating tibiofemoral and meniscal kinematics. The results demonstrated that ACL deficiency led to significant changes in bone kinematics, but negligible changes in the movement of the menisci. These results help explain the increased risk of meniscal tears and osteoarthritis in chronic ACL deficient knees.     

Spontaneous healing of acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries - conservative treatment using an extension block soft brace without anterior stabilization

To evaluate the spontaneous healing capability of acute anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, conservative treatment was applied in a selected group of 31 patients, who had low athletic demands. Each patient demonstrated a continuous ACL on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), from the original femoral attachment through the tibial attachment, and an area of high intensity was detected in the substance of the ACL. The injured knees were treated using an extension block soft brace without anterior stabilization for 2-3 months. KT-2000 and MRI examinations were carried out regularly during the follow-up. Twenty-three knees (74%) were revealed to be stable in the follow-up examination, with an average of 16.1 months elapsing since the initial injuries. The KT-2000 side-to-side differences of 20 knees were less than 3 mm, and those of the other 3 knees were more than 3 mm but less than 5 mm. MRI confirmed that 21 injured ACL out of 23 knees maintained a femoral to tibial attachment and showed gradual reductions in image intensity. The positions of the other 2 injured ACL femoral attachments were different from the original femoral attachment: one was attached to the posterior cruciate ligament, and the other was located at the lateral femoral condyle anterior to the original femoral attachment. Eight knees (26%) subsequently required ACL reconstructions due to instability. This study indicates that an acutely injured ACL has healing capability. It also suggests that conservative management of the acute ACL injury can yield satisfactory results in a group of individuals who have low athletic demands and continuous ACL on MRI, provided the patients are willing to accept the slight risk of late ACL reconstruction and meniscal injury.     

关节镜下前交叉韧带重建后内侧和外侧半月板同期移植术

目的 探讨全关节镜下前交叉韧带重建后内侧和外侧半月板同期移植的微创手术技术.方法 2008年8月对1例实施膝关节双束双通道前交叉韧带重建、内侧和外侧半月板切除的患者,在关节镜下实施内侧和外侧半月板同期移植微创手术.内侧半月板移植采用前后角骨栓固定方法,外侧半月板移植采用前后角骨桥固定方法.术后结果采用VAS疼痛评分、Cysholm评分和国际膝关节评分委员会(IKDC)分级评价.关节稳定性检查包括Lachman试验、抽屉试验和轴移试验.结果 术后随访26个月,患者膝关节屈曲、伸直和负重行走功能正常.VAS膝关节疼痛评分较术前降低2分,Lysholm评分较术前升高20分.IKDC分级由术前C级上升到B级.膝关节稳定性检查基本正常.术后1年MRI检查显示,重建前交叉韧带连续性完整,内侧和外侧移植异体半月板外形均较好,内侧半月板后角和外侧半月板前角有轻微萎缩.术后18个月关节镜复检观察到,外侧和内侧移植半月板均愈合良好,形态完整,但前角表面均有轻度磨损现象.结论 对膝前交叉韧带损伤和内、外侧半月板切除的患者,在前交叉韧带重建术后同期实施内侧和外侧半月板移植术可以尽量恢复膝关节的稳定性和力学平衡,对年轻患者是可供选择的治疗方式.术中建议采用同一供体的内侧和外侧异体半月板,制作各骨道时须注意其方向以避免骨道相互交通.

Abstract：

Objective To discuss the minimal invasive arthroscopic surgery technique and clinical results of both the medial and lateral meniscal transplantation following the anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction with double bundles and bone tunnels.Methods In August 2008 a minimal invasive surgery of both the medial and lateral meniscal allograft transplantation following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction was preformed for 1 case with both the medial and lateral menicectomy by arthroscopic surgery.The method of two bone plugs attached on tibial plateau was employed for medial meniscal allograft transplantation and the technique the bridge in slot for lateral meniscal allograft transplantation.The VAS,Lysholm score and IKDC rating were recorded before and after operation.The stability of knee was assessed by Lachman test,drawer sign and pivot shift test.Results The patient was followed up 26 month after the operations.The degrees of knee flexion,extension and function of walk were normal.The Lachman test,drawer sign and pivot shift test were nearly normal.The VAS after operation was 2 points lower than that before operation.The Lysholm score post-operation was 20 points higher than pre-operation.The IKDC became B degree in late following-up from C degree before the operation.MRI revealed anterior cruciate ligament graft was continuous and the meniscal allograft was normal shape on year 1 after the operation.The posterior horn of medial meniscal allograft and anterior corner of lateral meniscal allograft showed slightly shrunk.The second-look arthroscopy showed that the healing occurring between meniscal allograft and the capsule and meniscal allograft was normal shape on month 18 after the operation.The anterior horn of medial and lateral meniscus was slightly worn.Conclusions Both the medial and lateral meniscal transplantation following the anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction in appropriately selected patients with the medial and lateral meniscus-deficient knee may recover the knee mechanic balance and stability,which is a option of treatment for that young and activity patients.It is proposed that the medial and lateral meniscal grafts harvested from a single donator.Attention should be paid to the direction of the bone tunnels fixing the horns of the meniscus in order to avoid communication with the tunnels of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction.     

Misdiagnosis of an atypical cyclops lesion 4 years after single-bundle anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction

Development of a cyclops lesion is a well described complication after anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) reconstruction. It commonly results in gradual extension loss during the early postoperative course, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the soft tissue nodule attached to the ACL graft is needed. Cyclops lesions are easy to diagnose based on the symptoms and MRI findings. Previous study showed that 78.6% of cyclops lesions had extension loss within 6 weeks postoperatively, and the diagnosis of 92.8% cases of cyclops lesions was established within 6 months.This article describes a case of misdiagnosis of a cyclops lesion 4 years after ACL reconstruction as a meniscal lesion combined with a meniscal cyst. The patient was asymptomatic for 4 years and then presented with a locked left knee and pain at the inferior pole of the patella during an attempt to gently extend the knee. Magnetic resonance imaging revealed a lateral meniscal cyst. The knee locking was released suddenly 2 days preoperatively. The authors had attributed the missed diagnosis to an atypical history and symptoms and an associated meniscal cyst.The purpose of this article is to help prevent misdiagnosis of atypical cyclops lesions. Cyclops lesions should be considered in the differential diagnosis of patients who present with gradual or sudden loss of extension after ACL reconstruction, regardless of how much time has passed postoperatively.     

The acutely ACL injured knee assessed by MRI: are large volume traumatic bone marrow lesions a sign of severe compression injury?

OBJECTIVES: To map by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and quantitative MRI (qMRI) concomitant fractures and meniscal injuries, and location and volume of traumatic bone marrow lesions (BMLs) in the acutely anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injured knee. To relate BML location and volume to cortical depression fractures, meniscal injuries and patient characteristics. METHODS: One hundred and twenty-one subjects (26% women, mean age 26 years) with an ACL rupture to a previously un-injured knee were studied using a 1.5T MR imager within 3 weeks from trauma. Meniscal injuries and fractures were classified by type, size and location. BML location and volume were quantified using a multi-spectral image data set analyzed by computer software, edited by an expert radiologist. RESULTS: Fractures were found in 73 (60%) knees. In 67 (92%) of these knees at least one cortical depression fracture was found. Uni-compartmental meniscal tears were found in 44 (36%) subjects and bi-compartmental in 24 (20%). One hundred and nineteen (98%) knees had at least one BML, all but four (97%) located in the lateral compartment. Knees with a cortical depression fracture had larger BML volumes (P<0.001) than knees without a cortical depression fracture, but no associations were found between meniscal tears and BML volume or fractures. Older age at injury was associated with smaller BML volumes (P<0.01). CONCLUSION: A majority of the ACL injured knees had a cortical depression fracture, which was associated with larger BML volumes. This indicates strong compressive forces to the articular surface and cartilage at the time of injury, which may constitute an additional risk factor for later knee osteoarthritis development.     

Medial meniscal ossicles: Associated knee MRI findings in a multicenter case-control study

PurposeThe purpose of this study was to assess and compare the prevalence of meniscal, ligament and cartilage lesions on knee MRI in a series of age- and sex-matched patients with and without medial meniscal ossicle.Materials and methodsForty-two knee MRI examinations obtained in 42 patients (36 men, 6 women; mean age, 42.5 ± 22.2 [SD] years; range: 19–65 years) on which a medial meniscal ossicle was present were compared to 42 knee MRI examinations obtained in 42 age- and sex-matched patients (36 men, 6 women; mean age, 41.8 ± 20.6 [SD] years; range: 19–65 years) on which no medial meniscal ossicles were present. Two radiologists (R1, R2) blinded to the presence of meniscal ossicle by reading only the fat-saturated intermediate-weighted MR images separately assessed the presence of meniscal, ligament and cartilage lesions on these 84 knee MRI examinations. Prevalence of meniscal and ligament lesions and degree of cartilage degradation at MRI were compared between knees with and those without medial meniscal ossicle.ResultsIn knees with medial meniscal ossicle, R1 and R2 detected 33 (79%) and 38 (90%) medial meniscal lesions, respectively that involved the posterior root (n = 25/32 for R1/R2), the posterior horn (n = 19/14 for R1/R2) or the body (n = 8/10 for R1/R2). The prevalence of posterior root tear (60% [25/42]/76% [32/42] for R1/R2) and that of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) lesions (48% [20/42]/57% [24/42] for R1/R2) as well as the medial cartilage degradation score (3.35 ± 0.87 [SD] for R1 and 3.92 ± 0.78 [SD] for R2) were significantly greater in knees with than in knees without medial meniscal ossicle (root lesions: P < 0.01 for both readers; ACL lesions and medial cartilage score: P < 0.01 for both readers).ConclusionOn MRI examination, knees with a medial meniscal ossicle demonstrate a greater frequency of medial posterior root tear and of ACL lesions and a greater degree of medial femoro-tibial cartilage degradation by comparison with knees without medial ossicle.     

Acute traumatic knee effusions in children and adolescents

A prospective analysis was completed during a 6-month period to identify all patients, age 18 years or younger, who presented for evaluation of their knee effusion. There were 44 injured knees in 44 patients. There were a total of 55 diagnoses: 16 (29%) anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries, 16 (29%) meniscal tears, 14 (25%) patellofemoral subluxations or dislocations, 3 (5%) medial collateral ligament sprains, 2 (4%) patellar osteochondral fractures, 2 (4%) retinacular injuries, 1 (2%) posterior cruciate ligament rupture, and 1 (2%) tibial eminence fracture. Girls had 11 of the 14 patellofemoral injuries; 58% of the girls had effusions secondary to patellofemoral pathology compared with 12% of the boys. Boys had 10 of the 16 meniscal tears and 13 of the 16 ACL tears. Fifty-two percent of boys had an injury to the ACL and 44% had an injury to a meniscus. In contrast, 16% of girls had an ACL injury and 32% had meniscal tears. ACL injuries, meniscal tears, and patellofemoral pathology accounted for 87% (48/55) of the diagnoses. Girls were more likely to have patellofemoral pathology; boys were more likely to have ACL and meniscal tears.     

Articular cartilage lesions in the symptomatic anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee

Purpose: The goal of the study was to report the prevalence of the lesions of the articular cartilage of the femoral condyles and tibial plateau in patients with a symptomatic anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)-deficient knee undergoing day-case arthroscopy. Type of Study: Case series study. Methods: We studied 378 skeletally mature patients (average age, 27.3 years; range, 16–50 years; 282 men and 84 women), part of a sample of 1,978 patients undergoing a primary knee arthroscopy between January 1986 and August 1993. The articular cartilage lesions were classified according to Outerbridge by a single observer. We assessed the relationship between time of injury and articular cartilage lesions and between meniscal lesions and articular cartilage lesions. Results: A complete ACL tear was found in all 378 knees. Of these, 157 showed at least one lesion of the articular cartilage. The medial femoral condyle (MFC) showed the highest frequency of articular cartilage lesions, especially in the weight-bearing portion. Patients with a bucket-handle tear of the medial meniscus had greater degeneration of the MFC than those with other meniscal tears. A meniscal tear was associated with a greater degree of articular damage. The second most common lesion was a combined lesion of the medial and lateral compartments, followed by isolated lateral compartment lesion. A time-dependent pattern of development of articular cartilage lesions was identified. Conclusions: In patients with more advanced degenerative changes, the time from injury to arthroscopy was significantly longer than in patients with lesser articular surface abnormalities, and the presence of a meniscal tear was associated with a greater degree of articular cartilage damage. Patients with a symptomatic ACL-deficient knee and an associated tear of the medial meniscus are at high risk of having a lesion of the articular surface of the weight bearing area of the knee.     

Diagnostic value of clinical tests and Mri for meniscal injury in patients with anterior cruciate ligament injury: Case series study

Introduction and importanceMeniscal tear is one of the most common knee injuries and knee surgery procedures. It is frequently associated with an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injury. We conducted this study, on patients with ACL reconstruction surgeries, which were occasionally accompanied by meniscal tears, in order to determine the diagnostic value of clinical examinations for meniscal tear, both individually and in combination, in correlations to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, with the goal of improving clinical diagnosis for patients with meniscal injuries in particular, as well as meniscal injuries associated with cruciate ligament knee injuries.Case presentation50 patients were thoroughly clinically examined, using Joint line tenderness, Thessaly test, McMurray's test, Apley's test followed by MRI, before their scheduled ACL reconstruction arthroscopic surgeries. The meniscal tears were then identified during the procedure, and were treated, if necessary. The data before and after the surgery was taken into calculating, with arthroscopic findings serving as the gold standard. Results: the sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of each clinical tests and MRI scans respectively were: for medial meniscus, Joint line tenderness (70%; 53,3%; 60%); McMurray's test (80%; 73,3%: 76%); Apley's test (65%; 70%; 68%); Thessaly test(70%; 76,7%; 74%); MRI (90%; 83,3%; 86%); lateral meniscus: Joint line tenderness (73%; 66,7%; 70%); McMurray's test (69,2%; 75%: 72%); Apley's test (69,2%; 70,8%; 70%); Thessaly test (73,1%; 75%; 74%); MRI (88,5%; 87,5%; 88%). However, when combining at least two positive tests into a single composite test, the diagnostic value is considerably enhanced with sensitivity, specificity and accuracy of 85%, 73,3%, 78% for medial meniscus, 92,3%, 87,5%, 90% for lateral meniscus.Clinical discussionClinical tests are essential for diagnosis of meniscal tears, although inconsistent. A composite test consisting of at least two positive tests can considerably enhance the diagnostic value, even comparable to MRI scans. However, after the clinical examination, MRI is still necessary for the diagnostic process of meniscal injuries in particular, as well as meniscal injuries associated with cruciate ligament knee injuries.ConclusionThe combination of clinical tests and MRI images will give a precise diagnosis as well as surgical indication for meniscus injury in patients with anterior cruciate ligament tear.     

前交叉韧带损伤与胫骨平台后侧骨损伤的相关性分析

目的探讨前交叉韧带(anterior cruciate ligament,ACL)损伤与胫骨平台后侧骨损伤的相关性。方法纳入我院2010年10月至2017年10月行膝关节MRI的门诊或住院病人581例,年龄为(45.72±11.38)岁(20~79岁);男362例,女219例。分析所有病人的膝关节MRI影像学资料,记录病人ACL损伤程度(轻度损伤/断裂/撕脱骨折)、胫骨平台后侧骨损伤程度(骨挫伤/骨折),以及股骨损伤、半月板和侧副韧带损伤情况,并分析其致伤原因。采用Spearman秩相关分析病人ACL损伤与胫骨平台骨损伤之间的关系,并分析可能的损伤机制。结果581例病人中,ACL轻度损伤440例(75.73%),ACL断裂122例(21.00%),ACL撕脱骨折19例(3.27%)。202例出现胫骨平台后侧骨挫伤,47例出现胫骨平台后侧骨折;152例(61.04%)发生在外侧平台,59例(23.69%)发生在内侧平台,38例(15.26%)发生在双侧平台。Spearman秩相关分析结果显示ACL损伤程度与胫骨平台后侧骨损伤程度呈正相关(r=0.344,P<0.0001)。结论随着ACL损伤程度增加,胫骨平台后侧骨损伤越重,且以胫骨平台后外侧骨损伤为主。     

Combined Meniscus Repair and Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction

Meniscal tear patterns associated with anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears, such as root tears and ramp lesions are common but less easily recognized on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) compared with a complete radial tear or a locked bucket-handle tear. Timely treatment of these tears improves outcomes in the setting of ACL reconstruction. While physical examination does not enable a definitive diagnosis of meniscal root tears and ramp lesions, high-grade laxity, including a 3+ Lachman and 3+ pivot shift, should raise suspicions for these tear patterns. MRI allows visualization of both root tears and ramp lesions, although the gold standard for diagnosis is probing at the time of arthroscopy due to a high false-negative rate on MRI. Up to 17% of patients with an ACL tear have a lateral meniscal root tear; a contact mechanism and increased posterior slope are both associated with a greater incidence of lateral meniscal root tears and these are repaired with a tunnel technique. Meniscal ramp lesions occur in up to 41% of patients with ACL tears due to a contact mechanism, and we prefer repair with an inside-out technique. More than 60% of complete radial meniscal tears occur in the setting of ACL tears and are preferentially repaired with a hashtag technique for minimally separated tears and a 2-tunnel technique combined with an inside-out repair for more severe tears. Bucket-handle tears are more common in the setting of chronic ACL deficiency; concurrent with ACL reconstruction urgent meniscal repair with an inside-out technique is the gold standard, which allows for precise approximation of the tear with multiple points of fixation for improved biomechanical performance. It is critical to identify and treat these tears during ACL reconstruction because of their role as secondary stabilizers and for long-term chondral protection.     

Management of the dislocated/multipleligament injured knee

The multiple ligament injured knee is a complex problem in orthopaedic surgery. Most dislocated knees involve tears of the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL), and at least one collateral ligament complex. Careful assessment of the vascular status of the extremity is essential because of the possibility of arterial and/or venous compromise. These complex injuries require a systematic approach to evaluation and treatment. Physical examination and imaging studies enable the surgeon to make a correct diagnosis and to formulate a treatment plan. Arthroscopically assisted combined ACL/PCL reconstruction is a reproducible procedure. Knee stability is improved postoperatively when evaluated using knee ligament rating scales, arthrometer testing, and stress radiographic analysis. Acute medial cruciate ligament tears, when combined with ACL/PCL tears, may, in certain cases, be treated with bracing. Posterolateral corner injuries combined with ACL/PCL tears are best treated with primary repair as indicated combined with reconstruction using a post of strong autograft (split biceps tendon, biceps tendon, semitendinosus) or allograft (Achilles tendon, bone patellar tendon bone) tissue. Surgical timing depends on the ligaments injured, the vascular status of the extremity, reduction stability, and the overall health of the patient. We prefer the use of allograft tissue for reconstruction in these cases because of the strength of these large grafts and the absence of donor site morbidity.