艾司氯胺酮在心血管手术中的应用进展

艾司氯胺酮是氯胺酮的旋光异构体,兼有镇静、镇痛和遗忘三重作用,在药效和可控性等方面均优于消旋氯胺酮,目前已在欧美等国家广泛应用于麻醉、急救及重症等领域,在国内临床多用于镇静、镇痛、抗抑郁等。艾司氯胺酮在心血管手术中有利于维持稳定的血流动力学、减少炎性因子分泌、缓解术后疼痛。艾司氯胺酮具有拟交感神经作用,可用于血流动力学不稳定及急性心梗患者的麻醉诱导。本文综述了艾司氯胺酮用于心血管手术围术期临床应用价值和局限性,为艾司氯胺酮在心血管手术围术期的应用提供参考。     

艾司氯胺酮的临床应用进展

艾司氯胺酮是一种高亲和性的N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸(NMDA)受体非竞争性抑制药，同时具备麻醉和镇痛作用。除了广泛应用于围术期麻醉诱导与维持、急慢性疼痛的治疗与管理外，艾司氯胺酮在精神疾病和急危重症诊疗等多学科和领域同样有较好的临床应用。艾司氯胺酮国内应用于临床时间尚短，本文拟对其作用机制、药理学特点、围术期应用、疼痛管理中的应用现状以及不良反应进行综述，为临床提供参考。     

艾司氯胺酮在小儿围术期应用进展

艾司氯胺酮在患儿术前用药、术中麻醉、术后镇痛、门诊及日间手术中已应用广泛。术前用药可有效缓解患儿术前焦虑,促进患儿与父母的顺利分离,术前应用艾司氯胺酮不但有利于相对平稳的麻醉诱导过程,而且能够产生更少的精神不良反应及口腔分泌物。患儿术中持续输注低剂量艾司氯胺酮可有效降低阿片类药物剂量,且不影响苏醒质量,并减轻术后疼痛,同时可用于患儿术后镇痛。艾司氯胺酮单一或联合其他镇静镇痛药物可安全用于患儿内镜检查及治疗、诊断性检查及有创导管置入麻醉的应用,并有效减少其他镇静药物剂量,降低不良反应发生率。本文就艾司氯胺酮在患儿上述各方面应用进展进行综述,以期为临床应用提供参考。     

围术期应用氯胺酮对剖宫产产妇产后抑郁影响的Meta分析

目的 评价围术期应用氯胺酮对剖宫产产妇产后抑郁(PD)的影响.方法 通过检索Pubmed、Embase、Cochrane library、Web of Science、中国生物医学文献数据库、万方、知网和维普等数据库,检索时间为建库至2020年9月,收集有关围术期应用氯胺酮对剖宫产产妇PD影响的随机对照试验,文献进行筛...     

艾司氯胺酮联合竖脊肌平面阻滞对胸腔镜手术患者术后早期恢复质量的影响

目的： 探讨艾司氯胺酮联合竖脊肌平面阻滞（ESPB）对胸腔镜肺部手术患者术后早期恢复质量的影响。
方法： 选择2022年5月至2023年7月行胸腔镜肺部手术（胸腔镜下肺癌根治术、胸腔镜下肺叶或肺段切除术）患者90例,男47例,女43例,年龄18～64岁,BMI 18～25 kg/m²,ASA Ⅰ或Ⅱ级。采用随机数字法将患者分为两组：ESPB组（C组）和艾司氯胺酮联合ESPB组（D组）,每组45例。两组患者完成超声引导下ESPB,随后C组采用舒芬太尼行麻醉诱导和患者自控静脉镇痛（PCIA）;D组用艾司氯胺酮行麻醉诱导、麻醉维持和术后PCIA。记录术中麻醉药物用量、术后1、6、12、24、48 h患者活动时NRS疼痛评分、术后24 h内PCIA按压次数、术后补救镇痛次数、麻醉苏醒时间、术后2 d内术后恶心、呕吐及艾司氯胺酮有关不良反应的发生情况。术前1 d、术后2 d采用40项恢复质量量表（QoR-40）评分评估患者恢复质量。术前1 d及出院时采用医院焦虑-抑郁量表（HADS）评估患者焦虑、抑郁情绪。
结果： 与C组比较,D组术中丙泊酚、瑞芬太尼用量明显减少,术后恶心呕吐发生率明显降低,术后2 d QoR-40评分明显升高,出院时HADS评分明显降低（P＜0.05）。
结论： 艾司氯胺酮联合ESPB用于胸腔镜肺部手术患者安全有效,围术期镇痛完善,不良反应少,患者早期恢复质量较高,为此类手术提供一种新的麻醉选择。     

氯胺酮和艾司氯胺酮在低阿片方案中应用的研究进展

随着加速康复外科的不断发展,传统麻醉方案不断改进,有学者提出减少阿片类药物使用、推广多模式镇痛,即发展低阿片麻醉方案。氯胺酮是一种具有较强镇痛效果的麻醉药物,其药理学作用主要通过非竞争性地阻断N-甲基-D-天冬氨酸（NMDA）受体。因其具有较强的镇痛作用、不良反应较少、镇痛剂量不影响呼吸及循环稳定等特点,逐渐成为围术期低阿片方案中重要的非阿片类药物。本文就氯胺酮和艾司氯胺酮在低阿片方案中的临床应用及相关机制进行综述。     

艾司氯胺酮术后静脉镇痛对乳腺癌患者疼痛及焦虑、抑郁的影响

目的探讨艾司氯胺酮术后静脉镇痛对乳腺癌患者疼痛和情绪的影响。方法采用随机数字表法将择期行乳腺癌手术的60例患者分为艾司氯胺酮组和对照组(每组30例)。手术结束后连接静脉镇痛泵, 艾司氯胺酮组给予艾司氯胺酮复合舒芬太尼静脉泵注, 对照组给予舒芬太尼泵注, 其余配方相同。记录两组患者术前1 d和术后3 d的焦虑自评量表(Self-Rating Anxiety Scale, SAS)评分、抑郁自评量表(Self-Rating Depression Scale, SDS)评分, 术后1 d和术后2 d的VAS疼痛评分、Ramsay镇静评分, 记录两组患者不良反应、辅助镇痛药使用情况、镇痛满意度。结果两组患者术前1 d SAS及SDS评分差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);术后3 d艾司氯胺酮组SAS及SDS评分较对照组降低(P<0.05);艾司氯胺酮组术后3 d SAS及SDS评分较术前1 d下降(P<0.05), 而对照组患者术后3 d SAS及SDS评分较术前1 d升高(P<0.05)。两组患者术后1 d及术后2 d Ramsay镇静评分差异无统计学意义(P>0...     

艾司氯胺酮对烧伤切削痂植皮患者术后焦虑和抑郁情绪的影响

目的： 探讨术中应用艾司氯胺酮对烧伤切削痂植皮患者术后焦虑和抑郁情绪的影响。
方法： 选择择期行烧伤切削痂植皮术患者73例,男46例,女27例,年龄18～64岁,BMI 18.5～27.9 kg/m²,ASA Ⅱ或Ⅲ级。采用随机数字表法将患者分为两组:艾司氯胺酮组（E组,n=37）和对照组（C组,n=36）。E组于麻醉诱导时静脉注射艾司氯胺酮0.2 mg/kg,并持续静脉泵注0.1 mg·kg^-1·h^-1至术毕;C组输注等容量生理盐水。两组术后行舒芬太尼患者自控静脉镇痛（PCIA）。记录术后睁眼时间、拔管时间、PACU停留时间、术后住院时间、术后镇痛泵有效按压次数、总按压次数和补救镇痛情况。记录术前1 d、术后3、7 d焦虑自评量表（SAS）、抑郁自评量表（SDS）评分和焦虑、抑郁的发生情况。记录术后48 h内不良反应的发生情况。
结果： 与C组比较,E组PACU停留时间和术后住院时间明显缩短（P＜0.05）,术后镇痛泵有效按压次数、总按压次数明显减少（P＜0.05）,补救镇痛发生率、术后3、7 d的SAS、SDS评分和焦虑、抑郁发生率明显降低（P＜0.05）。两组术后48 h内不良反应发生率差异均无统计学意义。
结论： 术中应用艾司氯胺酮能够改善烧伤切削痂植皮患者术后焦虑和抑郁情绪,减少术后阿片类药物用量,促进术后早期恢复。     

艾司氯胺酮泵注对依托咪酯靶控输注所致苏醒期躁动的影响

目的 探讨艾司氯胺酮恒速泵注对依托咪酯靶控输注患者苏醒期躁动的影响。方法选择拟在依托咪酯靶控输注全麻下行中耳鼓室成形手术的患者120例,男61例,女59例,年龄18～64岁,BMI 18～30 kg/m²,ASAⅠ或Ⅱ级。将患者随机分为两组：艾司氯胺酮组(E组)和对照组(C组),每组60例。麻醉诱导开始至手术结束前30 min, E组泵注艾司氯胺酮0.2 ml·kg^-1·h^-1,C组泵注生理盐水0.2 ml·kg^-1·h^-1。记录手术时间、麻醉时间、苏醒时间、拔管时间、PACU停留时间。记录苏醒期躁动例数、出PACU时和术后1 d VAS疼痛评分、术后1 d恶心呕吐例数以及术后1 d恶心呕吐VAS评分。评估术前、术后1、2 d的焦虑和抑郁评分。结果 E组苏醒期躁动发生率、出PACU时和术后1 d VAS疼痛评分明显低于C组(P<0.05)。两组手术时间、麻醉时间、苏醒时间、拔管时间、PACU停留时间、术后1 d恶心呕吐发生率、术后1 d恶心呕吐VAS评分以及不同时点焦虑、...     

艾司氯胺酮联合普瑞巴林对胸腔镜术后急慢性疼痛的影响

目的 观察围术期口服普瑞巴林联合术后艾司氯胺酮静脉镇痛对胸腔镜术后急慢性疼痛的影响。方法 选择2020年9月至2021年8月择期全麻下行胸腔镜肺叶切除术患者129例,男68例,女61例,年龄18～80岁,BMI 15～30 kg/m²,ASAⅠ—Ⅲ级。采用随机数字表法将患者分为三组：艾司氯胺酮联合普瑞巴林组(PE组)、普瑞巴林组(P组)和对照组(C组),每组43例。PE组和P组术前1 h口服普瑞巴林150 mg,术后连续7 d口服普瑞巴林150 mg,每天2次。C组不口服普瑞巴林。PE组术后PCIA配方为：舒芬太尼100μg、艾司氯胺酮1.25 mg/kg、托烷司琼4 mg加生理盐水至100 ml。P组和C组术后PCIA配方为：舒芬太尼100μg、托烷司琼4 mg加生理盐水至100 ml。记录术后3、6、12、24、48 h静息和咳嗽时NRS疼痛评分。记录术中瑞芬太尼用量、术后0～12、12～24、24～48、0～48 h舒芬太尼用量、PCIA有效按压次数和总按压次数。记录术后48 h恶心、呕吐、头晕、瘙痒、幻觉和噩梦等不良反应发生情况。记录术后3、6个月慢性疼痛...     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.