Alcoholic beverage preference as a public statement: self-concept and social image of college drinkers

Several studies have indicated that drinking-driving violation rates differ significantly across beverage preference groups. In an effort to assess beverage-specific alcohol expectancies, surveys of 120 college students probed self-concept, drinker stereotypes, beverage preference and quantity-frequency of alcohol consumption. The results revealed sharply differentiated social stereotypes for hypothetical drinkers of various alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages. Beverage preference groups differed little in self-concept except that men who preferred beer or mixed drinks rated themselves as more drunk than did men who preferred wine or nonalcoholic beverages. Combining all beverage preference groups, heavier drinkers rated themselves more positively and they rated male nondrinkers more negatively on most dimensions than did lighter drinkers. Support was found for some, but not all, extrapolations from consistency theory and enhancement theory in predicting beverage choice.     

Ready to drinks are associated with heavier drinking patterns among young females

Aim . To report patterns of use of ready to drinks (RTDs) and to assess if RTD consumers have heavier drinking patterns. RTDs were introduced in 1995. Method . Data from a general population sample of 7201 respondents aged 14–65 years, in New Zealand in 2004, were modelled. Results . Nineteen per cent of respondents consumed RTDs. Respondents aged 14–17 and 18–24 years and females were the largest consumers of RTDs. Compared to beer, wine or spirits, being an RTD consumer predicted (1) higher typical occasion quantities for respondents aged 14–17, 18–24 and 25+ years and (2) heavier drinking for those aged 14–17 and 18–24 years. When amounts of beverages consumed were modelled, quantity of RTDs predicted higher typical occasion quantities among females of all ages. Among males beer was more predictive. Similar results were found for the heavier drinking measure. For 14–17‐year‐old females, RTDs consumption predicted higher annual frequency, but for the other females and males the amount of wine or beer consumed predicted higher frequency. Conclusion . RTDs were most popular among young people aged 14–17 years, and females. RTDs predicted higher typical occasion alcohol consumption and heavier drinking better than any other beverage for females aged 14–17 years. For the other age and gender groups, other beverages predicted higher quantity and frequency consumption.     

Specific alcoholic beverages and physical and mental health among adolescents

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the longitudinal inter-relationships among the consumption of specific alcoholic beverages (beer, wine and distilled spirits), physical symptoms and psychological distress. Two causal processes were examined for each type of beverage: (1) the use of alcohol to cope with pre-existing psychological distress and physical symptoms; (2) the impairment effects of alcohol on subsequent physical and mental health. METHOD: Data were collected at three points in time (baseline, 3-year follow-up, 6-year follow-up) from a household sample of 1,270 youths who were ages 12, 15 and 18 at the baseline interview. RESULTS: Consumption of all three beverages increased through early adolescence and leveled off at ages 18 and 21, and males reported more beer use than females. Structural equation models showed that the use of all three alcoholic beverages contributed significantly to longitudinal increases in physical symptoms, but not to changes in psychological distress. In contrast, no evidence supported the coping hypothesis. Finally, there were no significant interaction effects involving beverage type, gender or age on physical symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggested that the physical impairment process operated similarly for beer, wine and distilled spirits, for males and females, and for adolescents of different ages.     

Ethnic Origin,Beverage Preference,and Group Composition in Relation to Alcohol Consumption by Problem Drinkers

New Zealand problem drinkers of European, Maori, and Pacific Island origin did not differ in their mean alcohol consumption during a 2½-h free-drinking period in an experimental bar. Europeans had a smaller beer sip size, ingested more alcohol in the form of spirits, and were more likely to drink both beer and mixed drinks during the session than Polynesians. Dual beverage drinkers consumed more alcohol than did single beverage drinkers. Among drinkers of each ethnic category there was a positive relationship between alcohol consumption and ethnic representation in the drinking group. The results are discussed in the context of earlier baseline studies of drinking by alcoholics and normal drinkers, and observations of different ethnic groups drinking in the natural barroom environment.     

Differences in trouble per litre of different alcoholic beverages - A global comparison with the GENACIS dataset

Different alcoholic beverages are seen as causing more or less trouble, with spirits historically often seen as the most troublesome. Differences in the "trouble per litre" could reflect differences in the beverages themselves (e.g., faster effect of stronger beverages, additives/contaminants in informal beverages), or could reflect characteristics of those drinking each beverage. Using two alternative definitions of beverage choice and measures of personal and of social consequences of drinking, the paper examines trouble per litre among beer, wine and spirits drinkers in 19 different societies represented in the GENACIS dataset. There is no general pattern which holds across cultures of more or less trouble being associated with a particular beverage type. Wine seems to be less associated with trouble than beer or spirits in a number of societies, but there are counter-instances in other societies. There is no overall trend across cultures in comparing trouble associated with beer and with spirits. In a number of societies, drinkers with no predominant beverage report more problems than those mainly drinking beer or wine. Controlling for gender and age reduces the tilt towards less trouble from wine drinking, particularly for social consequences of drinking.     

Europe. An Analysis of Changes in the Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages: The Interaction Among Consumption,Related Harms,Contextual Factors and Alcoholic Beverage Control Policies

This AMPHORA study's aim was to investigate selected factors potentially affecting changes in consumption of alcoholic beverages in 12 European countries during the 1960s–2008 (an average increase in beer, decreases in wine and spirits, total alcohol drinking decrease). Both time series and artificial neural networks-based analyses were used. Results indicated that selected socio-demographic and economic factors showed an overall major impact on consumption changes; particularly urbanization, increased income, and older mothers’ age at their childbirths were significantly associated with consumption increase or decrease, depending on the country. Alcoholic beverage control policies showed an overall minor impact on consumption changes: among them, permissive availability measures were significantly associated with consumption increases, while drinking and driving limits and availability restrictions were correlated with consumption decreases, and alcohol taxation and prices of the alcoholic beverages were not significantly correlated with consumption. Population ageing, older mother's age at childbirths, increased income and increases in female employment, as well as drink driving limitations were associated with the decrease of transport mortality. Study's limitations are noted.     

Factors related to problem-drinking rates

Intercorrelation and regression analyses of data obtained from a drinking-related behavior and attitude household survey (N = 1127) of adults (age 18+) in Iowa are reported. The consumption variables were based on the 30 days prior to interview and included total ounces of absolute alcohol consumed; number of days the subject drank beer, wine and distilled spirits separately; typical quantity of each beverage consumed on drinking days; and the number of days drank five or more drinks within a couple of hours. The drinking attitude variables included level of tolerance (approve, indifferent, disapprove) of others' (men, women, spouse, son and daughter) drinking, getting high and getting intoxicated; a balance score of the proportion of positive and negative definitions of alcoholic beverages endorsed; an level of concern (not worried, somewhat worried and very worried) for eight possible consequences of heavy drinking. The drinking context variables used were the number of past 30 days that respondents drank at a bar or tavern, restaurant or club, home, others' homes, sports event and outdoor recreation; and number past 30 days drank alone, with relatives, work associates and close friends who are not work associates. The family environment variables included the respondent's report of whether any blood-related relatives had experienced alcohol-related problems, and of whether beverage alcohol was used in their childhood home.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

The drinking patterns of American and Polish university students: a cross-national study

A study of 3375 American and 1408 Polish university students was accomplished to test the hypotheses that cultural differences influence drinking patterns and beverage preferences between countries. Using the same questionnaire in both samples, the results revealed that significantly (P less than 0.001) more drinks per week were consumed by both Polish male (24.9) and female (15.2) students compared to American male (15.0) and female (7.6) students. Significantly (P less than 0.001) more wine was consumed by Polish (8.7) compared to the American (0.8) students. American female students consumed more beer than Polish female students. There was no difference between beer and spirits consumption between American and Polish males and Polish students in latter school years consumed more alcohol compared to students in the first years of school. It was concluded that the samples of students in this study reflected their cultures in terms of drinking patterns and beverage preference.     

The measurement of drinking patterns and alcohol problems in Nigeria

As in most other societies, alcoholic beverages have been consumed in what is present-day Nigeria for a long time. Before the arrival of western factory-made drinks, alcohol consumption was limited to a variety of beverages produced from palm trees and food grains. Today, beer has become the most popular drink in the country but traditional beverages (palm wine, burukutu, ogogoro, pito) are still widely consumed in both rural and urban areas. Though research has shown that heavy drinking seems to be the norm among those who drink any type of alcohol, there is no clear association between drinking and social or health problems. On the other hand, certain types of beverages are linked with positive attributes. Despite their potential significance, these and other issues have not received the attention they deserve in the alcohol research literature on Nigeria and other African countries. The focus of this paper is on the need to take into consideration relevant measurement issues (e.g., container and serving size, alcohol contents, drinking expectancies, perceived risks associated with the consumption of different types of alcoholic beverages, as well as reasons for drinking) in alcohol research. It is suggested that a better understanding of these and related factors is necessary for the advancement of alcohol epidemiology in the country.     

Strains Toward Convergence in the Consumption of Alcoholic Beverages: The Canadian Case and Implications for Public Health

Sulkunen's observations that international trends in the consumption of alcoholic beverages involve quantitative as well as qualitative homogen ization of drinking practices are tested against the experience of Canada and its provinces from the mid 1960s to late 1970s. Per capita con sumption of spirits, beer, and wine, and the contribution of each of these types of alcoholic beverages to total consumption are examined for each province for the fiscal years 1966, 1972, and 1978. On the whole, the findings are consistent with worldwide trends. Per capita consumption is increasing generally and there is a trend toward greater similarity in per capita consumption across the provinces (quantitative homogenization). Consumption of different types of beverages is be coming more similar (qualitative homogenization) and increases in the beverage with the lowest share of the market (i.e., wine) appear to be additive to overall consumption. The observation that increases in con sumption of the traditional types of beverages have the most impact on overall consumption is not observed for beer, but is observed in the case of spirits. Implications for public health and social policy are discussed.     

How much did you actually drink last night? An evaluation of standard drink labels as an aid to monitoring personal consumption

Background: Barriers exist for drinkers who wish to comply with low-risk guidelines when these are expressed in terms of numbers of “standard drinks” of alcohol. The increasing variability of container sizes and alcoholic strengths mean that percent alcohol by volume (%ABV) labels alone may be insufficient. Aims: To investigate whether standard drink (SD) labels would improve drinkers’ accuracy when estimating personal alcohol consumption. Setting: Private liquor stores near the University of Victoria, BC. Design: A 2?×?3?×?3 experimental design was employed with two labels (%ABV and SD), three beverages (beer, wine, and spirits) and three beverage strengths in balanced order. Subjects estimated the number of standard drinks that would be consumed in scenarios involving containers of their preferred beverages presented with different labels. Participants: A convenience sample of 301 liquor store patrons, aged 19 years and over. Measurements: Participants’ accuracy was determined by the relative and absolute percent errors in their estimations in comparison with correct answers. Results: Estimates were significantly more accurate with SD than %ABV labels in almost all the scenarios. Significantly more underestimation errors were made with %ABV labels. Mixed model regression analysis indicated younger respondents, beer drinkers and those with higher education made significantly fewer errors. Most (82.7%) supported SD labelling and believed SD labels would help them to comply with low-risk drinking guidelines (68.3%). Conclusions: The addition of clear SD labels helps consumers to make more accurate estimates of the SD content of their usual beverages than %ABV labels alone and would be more likely to help them comply with drinking guidelines.     

Alcohol cue reactivity and ad lib drinking in young men at risk for alcoholism

Individuals at high risk for alcoholism have been hypothesized to acquire alcoholic characteristics more rapidly than those at low risk. Two studies examined reactivity to alcohol cues, a phenomenon linked to craving for alcohol in clinical alcoholics, and ad lib drinking behavior in young men at varying risk for alcoholism. In Study 1, subjects exhibited increased autonomic and subjective responses during exposure to an alcohol beverage relative to a control beverage, suggesting that alcohol cue reactivity is not merely a clinical alcoholic phenomenon but also present in more moderate drinkers. This alcohol cue reactivity, however, was unrelated to risk status. Also, high-risk subjects exhibited greater nonspecific electromyographic and skin temperature reactivity, and higher baseline salivation volume than low-risk subjects. Of special note, ad lib alcohol consumption in Study 1 was correlated with subjects' self-report of craving during exposure to the alcoholic beverage. Study 2 attempted to replicate the baseline salivation finding but results were equivocal concerning the robustness of this effect. Also in Study 2, subjects exhibited decreased salivation volume following a placebo beverage and increased salivation volume following alcohol consumption. Studies 1 and 2 compared ad lib drinking behavior in high-risk and low-risk samples, but no group differences were found.     

Media, product differences and seasonality in alcohol advertising in 1997

OBJECTIVE: To spell out recent events related to the alcohol advertising controversy and to describe the extent of alcohol advertising for 1 year, the media favored for advertising different types of alcoholic beverages and seasonal variation in advertising patterns. METHOD: Monthly advertising data for 1997 were obtained from a variety of sources, including a commercial media monitoring service, a watchdog group, and trade and business press. Media examined were national and local television, radio, magazines, newspapers and billboards. RESULTS: Alcohol advertising expenditures were greatest in the late spring/early summer and during the holiday season. Television received the preponderance of alcohol advertising dollars for beer, wine, wine coolers and premixed drinks. Distilled spirits relied mostly on magazine advertising. Beer was the most heavily advertised product. More than half of televised beer ads aired on Saturday or Sunday afternoon during sporting events. There were more radio and TV ads for premixed low-alcohol beverages--some of which contain distilled spirits and many using brand names of distilled spirits--than for higher proof distilled spirits. CONCLUSIONS: Public health officials can use the results to plan the month and media in which to launch messages against alcohol misuse, to directly counter pro-alcohol messages in advertising. They should monitor consumption and advertising of premixed beverages. Those concerned with the debate on alcohol advertising should note the access children have to beer ads when these ads are aired during weekend daytime sporting events, and that beer remains the greatest advertised beverage, despite the 1996 lifting of the broadcast advertising ban on distilled spirits.     

What do preschoolers know about alcohol? Evidence from the electronic Appropriate Beverage Task (eABT)

While much is known about alcohol use in adolescence and beyond, factors leading to such behaviors are rooted much earlier in life. To investigate what preschoolers (aged three to six) know about alcohol and adult alcohol use, we developed an electronic version (eABT) of the Appropriate Beverage Task (Zucker, Kincaid, Fitzgerald, & Bingham, 1995). Drawings of adults and children in 11 everyday scenarios and 12 photos of different beverages were shown on a touchscreen computer to 301 three- to six-year-olds (49.5% girls) from 37 preschools and seven nurseries in French-speaking Switzerland. First, the children assigned a beverage to each individual in each drawing, and then were asked if the beverage contained alcohol and if they knew its name. The results revealed that 68.1% correctly classified beer, white wine, red wine and champagne as alcoholic beverages, while 46.4% knew the beverages by name, compared to 83.2% and 73.1% for non-alcoholic beverages. Alcoholic beverages were assigned more often to men (42.2%) than to women (28.7%) or to children (12.7%), and more often to adults at a party (39.4%) than to those playing outdoors (34.7%). In conclusion, children as young as three often have some beverage-specific knowledge. From the age of four onwards, they begin to know that alcoholic beverages contain alcohol. Children aged six and over tend to have some knowledge of adult drinking norms, i.e. who is drinking and in what circumstances.     

Labelling alcoholic drinks: percentage proof,original gravity,percentage alcohol or standard drinks?

Drivers who wish to stay 'under the limit', problem drinkers wishing to control their drinking and literally anyone who drinks alcohol and is concerned about their health are all increasingly exhorted to monitor their alcohol intake by counting 'standard drinks' (each containing 8-14 g, depending on the country in question). Unfortunately, the evidence presented in this paper suggests that this system permits many errors. In particular, it requires two assumptions to be met: (1) that drinks of the same beverage type (i.e. beer, wine, fortified wine or spirits) normally contain the same percentage of alcohol by volume; and (2) that people serve, or are served, alcoholic drinks in standard serves. It is shown that in practice the strength of drinks available for sale of a given beverage type varies widely and that 'atypical' strengths form a significant proportion of alcohol sales. Furthermore, whether drinking occurs in a private residence or on licensed premises, it is usual for quantities greater than the supposed Australian standard of 10 g to be served. In practice, most people are unaware of the strengths of different beverages or the rough equivalences between them. Even if they are taught the standard drink system, they cannot make allowances for 'atypical' variations in strength. It is suggested these problems could be readily overcome if all alcohol containers were labelled in terms of standard drinks. The benefits of such a labelling system are discussed with regard to health promotion, accident prevention and the accuracy of surveys of alcohol use.     

An alternative to standard drinks as a measure of alcohol consumption

Despite the field's longstanding concern with underreporting of alcohol consumption, traditional survey questions encourage error because respondents often must calculate their number of drinks based on standard drink sizes that often do not match their own drinking style. This study considered how often respondents' self-defined drink sizes matched a 'standard' drink size based on approximately 12 g of ethanol for six different beverages. We also studied whether respondents could accurately judge the size of their drinks. Subjects were recruited and interviewed at urban prenatal clinics, health clinics, and via snowball referrals and community outreach in Los Angeles and the San Francisco Bay Area. Because of the urgency of accurate measurement of consumption during pregnancy, urban pregnant women from the groups most at risk for Fetal Alcohol Syndrome, Native Americans (n = 102) and African Americans (185), were targeted. A small comparison group of urban pregnant white women (n = 34) was included. One-hour in-person interviews were conducted. Self-defined drink sizes were determined for each beverage consumed, using models and photographs of vessels. Frequent drinkers and the majority of women who reported drinking higher alcohol content beverages reported drinking larger-than-standard drink sizes. The median size of a malt liquor drink among the daily drinkers was almost three times as large as the standard, their fortified wine drinks were four times the standard, and their spirits drinks were six times the standard size. The majority of drinkers of each beverage were unable to accurately judge the size of their drinks, underestimating the number of fluid ounces by about 30%. Although the vessels methodology used here must be refined and tested further on other populations (e.g., men, nonpregnant women, and all ethnic groups), results suggest that determination of risk levels should be based on survey data that takes into consideration the beverage mix and the actual size of respondents' alcohol drinks.     

Drinking-driving fatalities and consumption of beer, wine and spirits

Drinking-driving is a leading cause of preventable morbidity and mortality in Canada. The purpose of this paper was to examine factors that influenced drinking driver deaths in Ontario. We examined the impact of per capita consumption of total alcohol, and of beer, wine and spirits separately, on drinking-driving deaths in Ontario from 1962 to 1996, as well as the impact of the introduction of Canada's per se law and the founding of People to Reduce Impaired Driving Everywhere - Mothers Against Drunk Driving (PRIDE - MADD) Canada. We utilised time-series analyses with autoregressive integrated moving average (ARIMA) modelling. As total alcohol consumption increased, drinking driving fatalities increased. The introduction of Canada's per se law, and of PRIDE-MADD Canada, acted to reduce drinking driving death rates. Among the specific beverage types, only consumption of beer had a significant impact on drinking driver deaths. Several factors were identified that acted to increase and decrease drinking driver death rates. Of particular interest was the observation of the impact of beer consumption on these death rates. In North America, beer is taxed at a lower rate than other alcoholic beverages. The role of taxation policies as determinants of drinking-driving deaths is discussed. [Mann RE, Zalcman RF, Asbridge M, Suurvali H, Giesbrecht N. Drinking-driving fatalities and consumption of beer, wine and spirits. Drug Alcohol Rev 2006;25:321 - 325]     

Relationship between ALDH2 genotypes and choice of alcoholic beverages]

There are obviously individual differences in the choice for many kinds of alcoholic beverages such as beer, wine, whisky, sake, cocktail and so on. It is generally believed that these differences are related to acquired preferences in taste and smell, in addition to life style. However, the basis of these acquired preferences is not yet understood. It has been shown that around half of Japanese show a marked sensitivity to alcoholic beverages because of aversive reactions due to a catalytic deficiency in ALDH2 isozyme. Therefore, differences in ALDH2 genotypes may possibly influence the choice of alcoholic beverages because the individuals possessing the ALDH2*2 gene may prefer the alcoholic beverages containing lower concentrations of alcohol. A large population survey (320 males, 132 females) was conducted using questionnaires to investigate the relationship between ALDH2 genotypes and the choice of alcoholic beverages. Individuals with the homozygote of ALDH2*1 generally showed more preference for alcoholic beverages containing a higher concentration of alcohol than those with the heterozygote or the homozygote of ALDH2*2. It was noted that the latter groups preferred whisky and water, and sweet cocktails. Also, the choices for beer, whisky, and sake were significantly different between both genders. Our data suggested that individuals with ALDH2*2 prefer beverages with lower concentrations of alcohol due to an aversive reaction after drinking, and that there are obvious gender differences in the consumption as well as the choice for many alcoholic beverages.     

Palatability,Familiarity, and Underage,Immoderate Drinking

Data gathered in a study of palatability (“liking”) and familiarity ratings of alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages by 350 subjects from 12 to 30 years of age included the usual number of drinks consumed. Blind ratings of palatability and familiarity for the beverages were tested for association with immoderate drinking (more than four for males, two for females). Palatability ratings were combined in a principal components analysis to determine whether any component scores were related to such drinking. Liking for the spirits used in the ready-to-drink beverages was related to immoderate drinking in participants under 18 years of age, while liking for the ready-to-drink beverages themselves was not. Liking for beer was related to immoderate drinking in males under 18. The principal components analysis suggested that males who drank immoderately preferred pungent (bitter or acrid) beverages, while females who drank immoderately did not. The associations of palatability ratings with immoderate drinking were substantial and consistent with familiarity ratings, but were found among the least palatable beverages. The results are related to previous studies of beverage preference in underage, heavy drinkers. It is concluded that relative palatability is not an overriding factor in the choice of beverages among underage drinkers who drink beyond the recommended limits.     

Beverage-specific patterns of 5+ alcoholic drink consumption by young adults in the U.S.

Young adult binge drinking prevalence has been widely researched. However, beverage-specific binge drinking rates for beer, liquor, wine, and wine coolers have not yet been documented for this age group. This study examines consumption of specific beverages (i.e., 5+ drinks in a row in the past two weeks) by young adults aged 19/20. Data from the national Monitoring the Future study were collected one or two years after high school from 2004 to 2014 (n = 2004). Logistic regression was used to examine associations between beverage-specific 5+ drinking and gender, race/ethnicity, parent education, college status, and cohort year. Overall 5+ drinking in the past two weeks was reported by 31.4% of young adults. Beverage-specific 5+ drinking was most common with liquor (22.6%) and beer (22.4%), followed by wine (4.5%) and wine coolers (3.0%). Men were more likely than women to engage in 5+ drinking with beer and liquor; women were more likely than men to do so with wine and wine coolers. Beverage-specific patterns differed by college attendance. Compared to four-year college students, two-year college/votech students were less likely to have 5+ drinks of liquor or wine, and more likely to have 5+ wine coolers; those not in college were less likely to have 5+ drinks of liquor and more likely to have 5+ wine coolers. Differences in beverage-specific 5+ drinking by gender and college enrollment suggest that intervention efforts should focus on the beverages that are most commonly consumed at high levels within specific early young adult populations.