“It’s Just Not Very Realistic”: Perceptions of Media Among Pregnant and Postpartum Women

Although research has documented a connection between media and body image for women, little research has explored this connection among pregnant or postpartum women. The purpose of this study was to explore women’s perceptions of media and body image during the perinatal period. Fredrickson’s objectification theory provided a theoretical framework for the study. Data collection involved semi-structured in-depth interviews with 50 pregnant or postpartum women in which they were asked to describe their perceptions of media depictions of pregnant or postpartum women and its impact on their body image. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and analyzed thematically. Four major themes emerged: (1) participants questioned the realism of media depictions of pregnant and postpartum women, (2) participants described complex reactions to media messages including negative impacts on body image and strategies for mitigating negative impacts, (3) participants desired changes in media messages to be more realistic and to depict a more complex portrayal of the life stage, and (4) participants discussed the unique and complex role of social media including both negative and positive impacts. Implications of the findings for pregnant and postpartum women, communication scholars, and healthcare professionals are discussed.     

Media Impacts on Women’s Fertility Desires: A Prolonged Exposure Experiment

Media exposure may have implications for family planning, a public health issue of key importance. Drawing on social comparison theory and social identity theory, a prolonged exposure experiment examined whether media portrayals of women’s social roles affect fertility desires among 166 American, nonstudent, never married, childless women ages 21–35 years old. After sign-up and baseline sessions, participants viewed magazine pages five days in a row. Stimuli presented women in either mother/homemaker roles, beauty ideal roles, or professional roles. Three days later, participants again indicated their number of desired children and time planned until first birth. Exposure to mother/homemaker and beauty ideal portrayals increased the number of desired children across time. Exposure to professional portrayals increased the time planned until 1st birth compared to beauty ideal portrayals—this impact was partially mediated by a shift toward more progressive gender norms (per social identity theory) and assimilation (per social comparison theory).     

Symptoms of Posttraumatic Stress,Depression, and Body Image Distress in Female Victims of Physical and Sexual Assault: Exploring Integrated Responses

While body image concerns and interpersonal violence exposure are significant issues for women, their interrelationship has rarely been explored. We examined the associations between severity of acute injuries, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and body image distress within a sample of predominantly African American victims of interpersonal violence (N = 73). Severity of body image distress was significantly associated with each outcome. Moreover, body image distress was a significant, unique predictor of depression but not PTSD severity. We recommend continued exploration of body image concerns to further integrated research on violence against women.     

The effect of body dissatisfaction on women's perceptions of female celebrities

OBJECTIVE: Research suggests that media exposure causes some women to feel heightened dissatisfaction with their body shape. This study attempts to determine which women are effected as such, by investigating how women feel about their own bodies and how this effects their perceptions of female celebrities in the media. METHOD: Undergraduate females (n = 116) were shown one accurate and six distorted photographs of thin and heavy female celebrities. Each distorted photograph made the celebrity appear thinner or heavier than actuality. Participants chose which photograph portrayed each celebrity's true body shape. Body shape concerns were measured by the Body Shape Questionnaire. RESULTS: Women concerned about their body shape judged thin celebrities as thinner than actuality, whereas unconcerned women judged them accurately. Both groups judged heavy celebrities as heavier than actuality. DISCUSSION: Results suggest certain women are effected by media exposure due to their own perception of females in the media. Prevention strategies, and the media's role in body dissatisfaction and dieting disorders, are discussed.     

Does the Internet function like magazines? An exploration of image-focused media,eating pathology,and body dissatisfaction

Research has identified a relation between exposure to thin-ideal magazine and television media images and eating disorder pathology. However, few studies have examined the potential influence of Internet media on eating disorder behaviors and attitudes. This study investigated associations among image-focused media exposure, body dissatisfaction, eating pathology and thin-ideal internalization in a sample of 421 female undergraduates. Undergraduate women spent significantly more time viewing online appearance-oriented media, rather than reading image-focused magazines. Appearance-oriented Internet and television use were associated with eating pathology. Moreover, the association between image-focused Internet use and BD was mediated by thin-ideal internalization. These findings are consistent with those of previous research, and highlight the vulnerability individuals high in thin-ideal internalization might have to media exposure. They also suggest that Internet media use is an important topic to attend to in eating disorders prevention and treatment.     

Body image among Muslim women in Israel: exploring religion and sociocultural pressures

ABSTRACT

The study aimed to investigate the association of the Muslim religion, as a multidimensional factor, with social pressures related to body image concerns, among Muslim women in Israel. Four hundred and Seventy-five Israeli Muslim women ages between 18 and 30 years completed questionnaire measures of strength of religious faith, wearing a traditional head cover (the Hijab), positive and negative body image, media exposure, societal pressures to conform to Western body ideals and its internalization, from 2016 to 2018. Strength of religious faith and wearing the Hijab were positively associated with positive aspects of body image, while only strength of religious faith negatively correlated with body dissatisfaction. Further, mediation analyses revealed that the relationship between the strength of religious faith and both positive body image and body dissatisfaction was mediated by media pressures. Notably, reduced peer pressures had more influence on positive body image, while reduced family pressures were more influential for negative body image. These results are discussed with regard to promoting a more intricate and multicultural understanding of body image concepts.     

Keeping it Natural: Does Persuasive Magazine Content Have an Effect on Young Women’s Intentions for Birth?

Information in the popular media tends to be biased toward promoting the benefits of medicalized birth for low-risk pregnancies. We aimed to assess the effect of communicating the benefits of non-medicalized birth in magazine articles on women’s birth intentions and to identify the mechanisms by which social communication messages affected women’s intentions for birth. A convenience sample of 180 nulliparous Australian women aged 18–35 years were randomly exposed to a magazine article endorsing non-medicalized birth (using either celebrity or non-celebrity endorsement) or organic eating (control) throughout June–July 2011. Magazine articles that endorsed non-medicalized birth targeted perceived risk of birth, expectations for labor and birth, and attitudes toward birth. These variables and intention for birth were assessed by self-report before and after exposure. Exposure to a magazine article that endorsed non-medicalized birth significantly reduced women’s intentions for a medicalized birth, regardless of whether the endorsement was by celebrities or non-celebrities. Changes in perceived risk of birth mediated the effect of magazine article exposure on women’s intentions for a medicalized birth. Persuasive communication that endorses non-medicalized birth could be delivered at the population level and may reduce women’s intentions for a medicalized birth.     

Media ideals and other-sex peer norms among Belgian early adolescents: equating self-worth with attractiveness

The purpose of this study was to investigate how total amount of television and magazine exposure and heterosocial involvement (i.e., mixed-sex interactions) relate to the endorsement of dysfunctional appearance beliefs. We anticipated a double dose effect in that exposure to media would be related to more dysfunctional appearance beliefs among those who are frequently involved in mixed-sex interactions. A total of 1976 early adolescent boys and girls (M_age = 11.77; SD = 1.04) participated in a cross-sectional study. Results indicated that the internalization of appearance ideals and appearance expectations of opposite-sex peers mediated the association between amount of television and magazine exposure and the endorsement of dysfunctional appearance beliefs. Heterosocial involvement did not, however, strengthen the influence of media exposure on early adolescents’ body image.     

Alcohol in the media: content and effects on drinking beliefs and behaviors among youth

Drinking portrayals and alcohol advertising are common in popular media and young people are highly exposed to them. Although some studies found that exposure to drinking portrayals is related to increases in drinking among youth, other studies produced mixed and inconclusive findings. Similarly, research on the effects of alcohol advertising presents mixed findings. Recent longitudinal research and studies that used modeling techniques that controlled for reciprocal effects suggests that exposure to, attention to, and liking of alcohol advertising may influence children and adolescents' drinking beliefs and behaviors. Further research, and particularly longitudinal studies that address at-risk populations, such as children and minorities, is necessary before firm conclusions about the effects of media portrayals and alcohol advertising can be reached.     

Boost Your Body: Self-Improvement Magazine Messages Increase Body Satisfaction in Young Adults

The verbal messages that contextualize exposure to idealized body imagery may moderate media users’ body satisfaction. Such contextualizing verbal messages often take the form of social comparison motives in fashion magazines, while body dissatisfaction is an important mechanism underlying various body image–related health issues like depression and unbalanced weight status. Hence, the present study applied social comparison motives as induced through magazine cover messages. Hypotheses were tested in an experimental design with social comparison motives (self-improvement vs. self-evaluation vs. control) and recipient gender as between-subjects factors and body satisfaction as within-subjects factor (N = 150). Results showed that self-improvement messages accompanying ideal body media models increased body satisfaction, compared to control messages and baseline measures. In contrast, the self-evaluation messages did not impact body satisfaction. Results imply that inconsistencies regarding effects from exposure to idealized body imagery are explained by the context in which media images are portrayed, evoking differential social comparison motives. Moreover, the findings imply that health communication interventions can use verbal messages on body improvement as helpful tools, if they draw on social comparison motives effectively.     

两种不同方法应用欣母沛预防剖宫产产后出血的临床观察

目的:观察欣母沛对合并有产后出血高危因素的剖宫产孕产妇产后出血的防治效果和安全性。方法:选择合并有羊水过多、双胎妊娠、巨大胎儿、宫缩乏力、前置胎盘等产后出血高危因素的孕产妇90例,随机分为对照组(胎儿娩出后只常规静滴催产素)、肌注欣母沛组(胎儿娩出后常规静滴催产素的基础上,同时三角肌内注射欣母沛)、宫体注射欣母沛组(胎儿娩出后常规静滴催产素的基础上,同时子宫肌层内注射欣母沛)各30例。比较各组术中、产后2 h及产后24 h的出血量、产后出血的发生率以及副反应。结果:肌注欣母沛组和宫体注射欣母沛组产后出血的发生率分别为16.7%和13.3%,明显低于对照组的36.7%(P<0.01),两组术中、产后2 h和产后24 h平均出血量也均明显少于对照组,差异有统计学意义(P<0.01),肌注欣母沛组和宫体注射欣母沛组的副反应总发生率明显高于对照组36.7%(P<0.01),肌注欣母沛组的副反应总发生率高于宫体注射欣母沛组(P<0.05)。发生副反应的孕产妇均可自行恢复,无严重并发症发生。结论:对合并有产后出血高危因素的剖宫产孕产妇术中预防性使用欣母沛,明显减少了术中和产后出血量,降低了产后出血的发生率,两种使用方法均疗效确凿、安全性好,值得各级医院推广。     

Eating disorder symptoms and body image concerns in Iran: comparisons between Iranian women in Iran and in America.

OBJECTIVE: Rates of eating disorder symptoms were compared between Iranian women living in Iran and Iranian women living in America, in order to assess the impact of Western culture on eating disorders. Women in Iran are mandated by law to cover their bodies with a long veil or overcoat and they have little legal exposure to Western culture and media. METHOD: Fifty-nine female Iranian students living in Tehran and 45 female students of Iranian descent living in Los Angeles were surveyed with the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire and the Figure Rating Scale. RESULTS: Few differences were found between participants in the two samples, despite ample power to detect them. Participants in Iran reported as much disordered eating as participants who had immigrated to America. DISCUSSION: Neither exposure to Western media nor acculturation to Western norms appeared to be related to symptoms of disordered eating and body image concerns in this sample.     

The impact of direct-to-consumer television and magazine advertising on antidepressant use

We examine whether exposure to direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) for antidepressant drugs affects individual use of these medications among those suffering from depression. Prior studies have almost exclusively relied on making connections between national or market-level advertising volume/expenditures and national or individual-level usage of medications. This is the first study to: estimate the impact of individual-level exposure to DTCA on individual-level use of antidepressants; estimate the impact of individual-level exposure to television DTCA on individual-level use in any drug class; consider the relative and interactive impact of DTCA in two different media in any drug class; and, consider the heterogeneity of impact among different populations in an econometric framework in the antidepressant market. There are also important limitations to note. Unlike prior market level studies that use monthly data, we are limited to aggregated annual data. Our measures of potential advertising exposure are constructed assuming that media consumption patterns are stable during the year. We are also not able to study the impact of advertising on use of antidepressants for conditions other than depression, such as anxiety disorders. We find that: DTCA impacts antidepressant use in a statistically and economically significant manner; that these effects are present in both television and magazine advertising exposure but do not appear to have interactive effects; are stronger for women than for men in the magazine medium, but are about equally strong for men and women in the TV medium; and, are somewhat stronger for groups suffering from more severe forms of depression. The overall size of the effect is a 6-10 percentage point increase in antidepressant use from being exposed to television advertising; the corresponding magazine effects are between 3 and 4 percentage points.     

Cluster sampling with referral to improve the efficiency of estimating unmet needs among pregnant and postpartum women after disasters

Introduction and BackgroundWomen of reproductive age, in particular women who are pregnant or fewer than 6 months postpartum, are uniquely vulnerable to the effects of natural disasters, which may create stressors for caregivers, limit access to prenatal/postpartum care, or interrupt contraception. Traditional approaches (e.g., newborn records, community surveys) to survey women of reproductive age about unmet needs may not be practical after disasters. Finding pregnant or postpartum women is especially challenging because fewer than 5% of women of reproductive age are pregnant or postpartum at any time.MethodsFrom 2009 to 2011, we conducted three pilots of a sampling strategy that aimed to increase the proportion of pregnant and postpartum women of reproductive age who were included in postdisaster reproductive health assessments in Johnston County, North Carolina, after tornadoes, Cobb/Douglas Counties, Georgia, after flooding, and Bertie County, North Carolina, after hurricane-related flooding.ResultsUsing this method, the percentage of pregnant and postpartum women interviewed in each pilot increased from 0.06% to 21%, 8% to 19%, and 9% to 17%, respectively.Conclusion and DiscussionTwo-stage cluster sampling with referral can be used to increase the proportion of pregnant and postpartum women included in a postdisaster assessment. This strategy may be a promising way to assess unmet needs of pregnant and postpartum women in disaster-affected communities.     

The reciprocal effects of eating disorders and the postpartum period: a review of the literature and recommendations for clinical care

This paper examines the areas of psychological and physiological concern when working with patients who have eating disorders as they move through the postpartum period. These concerns include infant feeding, maternal-child bonding, and postpartum adjustment. The combination of psychological stressors of new motherhood and body image concerns intensified by the residual bodily changes of pregnancy may predispose women to have an exacerbation in eating disordered symptoms as well as the development of postpartum mood disorders. Depression can lead mothers to be nonresponsive, inconsistent, or rejecting of the infant, placing the mother-baby attachment at risk. The added existence of an eating disorder compounds these risks, with medical and psychological risks becoming increasingly apparent. Healthcare providers (e.g., primary care physician, obstetric provider) are more likely to have contact with women during the postpartum period, making such providers instrumental in the screening and referral process. A multidisciplinary approach is recommended for treating eating disorders and related conditions. Unfortunately, there is little information about the efficacy and appropriateness of standard eating disorder treatments for women in the postpartum period. In addition to reviewing the literature, guidance is offered on how to assess and treat patients with eating disorders in general as well as considerations specific to the postpartum period.     

Are Pregnant and Postpartum Women: At Increased Risk for Violent Death? Suicide and Homicide Findings from North Carolina

The purpose of this study is to estimate rates of suicide and homicide death among pregnant, postpartum and non-pregnant/non-postpartum women ages 14–44, and to determine comparative rates of violent death for pregnant and/or postpartum women compared to non-pregnant/non-postpartum women. North Carolina surveillance and vital statistics data from 2004 to 2006 were used to examine whether pregnant or postpartum women have higher (or lower) rates of suicide and homicide compared to other reproductive-aged women. The suicide rate for pregnant women was 27% of the rate for non-pregnant/non-postpartum women (rate ratio = 0.27, 95% CI = 0.11–0.66), and the suicide rate for postpartum women was 54% of the rate for non-pregnant/non-postpartum women (rate ratio = 0.54, 95% CI = 0.31–0.95). Homicide rates also were lower for pregnant and postpartum women, with the homicide rate for pregnant women being 73% of the rate for non-pregnant/non-postpartum women (rate ratio = 0.73, 95% CI = 0.39–1.37), and the homicide rate for postpartum women being half the rate for non-pregnant/non-postpartum women (rate ratio = 0.50, 95% CI = 0.26–0.98). Although pregnant and postpartum women are at risk for homicide and suicide death, the highest risk group is non-pregnant/non-postpartum women. Violence prevention efforts should target all women of reproductive age, and pay particular attention to non-pregnant/non-postpartum women, who may have less access to health care services than pregnant and postpartum women.     

Mothers “Google It Up:” Extending Communication Channel Behavior in Diffusion of Innovations Theory

This study employed qualitative methods, conducting 44 in-depth interviews with biological mothers of newborns to understand women’s perceptions and use of new media, mass media, and interpersonal communication channels in relation to health issues. Findings contribute to theoretical and practical understandings of the role of communication channels in diffusion of innovations theory. In particular, this study provides a foundation for the use of qualitative research to advance applications of diffusion of innovations theory. Results suggest that participants resisted mass media portrayals of women’s health. When faced with a health question, participants uniformly started with the Internet to “Google it up.” Findings suggest new media comprise a new communication channel with new rules, serving the functions of both personal and impersonal influence. In particular, pregnancy and the postpartum period emerged as a time when campaign planners can access women in new ways online. As a result, campaign planners could benefit from introducing new ideas online and capitalizing on the strength of weak ties favored in new media. Results expand the innovativeness/needs paradox in diffusion of innovations theory by elaborating on the role of new media to reach underserved populations. These findings provide an opportunity to better understand patient information seeking through the lens of diffusion of innovations theory.     

Automatic evaluation of body-related words among young women: an experimental study

Background  

Previous research has demonstrated that exposure to images depicting the thin female ideal has negative effects on some females' levels of body dissatisfaction. Much of this research, however, has utilised relatively long stimulus exposure times; thereby focusing on effortful and conscious processing of body-related stimuli. Relatively little is known about the nature of females' affective responses to the textual components of body-related stimuli, especially when these stimuli are only briefly encountered. The primary aim of the current research was to determine whether young women automatically evaluate body-related words and whether these responses are associated with body image concerns, including self-reported levels of appearance schematicity, thin internalisation, body dissatisfaction, and dietary restraint.     

Perspectives of pregnant and postpartum latino women on diabetes, physical activity, and health.

Impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes are prevalent among Latino women of childbearing age. Physical activity during and after pregnancy may contribute to weight control and improved metabolic status, but recommended activities may not be perceived as appropriate or feasible. To plan realistic and acceptable interventions, pregnant and postpartum Latino women in Detroit met in a focus group series to discuss their beliefs about diabetes and factors influencing their participation in regular physical activity during pregnancy and postpartum. Women believed that diabetes was primarily related to heredity and diet but not to physical activity. Exercise was believed to reduce stress and improve general health. Women suggested an organized group intervention, in a respected location, that offered safe physical activities within the context of a variety of activities for women and children. This strategy reduced concerns about safety and social acceptability while addressing their primary interest in social support.