A prototype instrument for single pinhole small animal adaptive SPECT imaging

The authors have designed and constructed a small-animal adaptive SPECT imaging system as a prototype for quantifying the potential benefit of adaptive SPECT imaging over the traditional fixed geometry approach. The optical design of the system is based on filling the detector with the region of interest for each viewing angle, maximizing the sensitivity, and optimizing the resolution in the projection images. Additional feedback rules for determining the optimal geometry of the system can be easily added to the existing control software. Preliminary data have been taken of a phantom with a small, hot, offset lesion in a flat background in both adaptive and fixed geometry modes. Comparison of the predicted system behavior with the actual system behavior is presented, along with recommendations for system improvements.     

Comparison of correction techniques for simultaneous 201Tl/99mTc myocardial perfusion SPECT imaging: a dog study

We compared two correction methods for simultaneous 201Tl/99mTc dual-isotope single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Both approaches use the information from the third energy window placed between the photopeak windows of the 201Tl and 99mTc. The first approach, described by Moore et al, corrects only for the contribution of the 99mTc to the 201Tl primary 70 keV window. We developed the three-window transformation dual isotope correction method, which is a simultaneous cross-talk correction. The two correction methods were compared in a simultaneous 201Tl/99mTc sestamibi cardiac dog study. Three separate acquisitions were performed in this dog study: two single-isotope and one dual-isotope acquisition. The 201Tl single-isotope images were used as references. The total number of counts, and the contrast between the left ventricular cavity (LVC) and the myocardium, were used in 70 keV short axis slices as parameters for evaluating the results of the dual-isotope correction methods. Three consecutive short-axis slices were used to calculate averaged contrast and the averaged total number of counts. The total number of the counts was 667000+/-500 and 414500+/-400 counts for the dual isotope (201Tl+/-99mTc) and single-isotope (201Tl-only) 70 keV images, respectively. The corrected dual-isotope images had 514700+/-700 and 368000+/-600 counts for Moore's correction and our approach, respectively. Moore's method improved contrast in the dual isotope 70 keV image to 0.14+/-0.03 from 0.11+/-0.02, which was the value in the 70 keV non-corrected dual-isotope image. Our method improved the same contrast to 0.22+/-0.03. The contrast in the 201Tl single-isotope 70 keV image was 0.28+/-0.02. Both methods improved the 70 keV dual-isotope images. However, our approach provided slightly better images than Moore's correction when compared with 201Tl-only 70 keV images.     

Dynamic model of the left ventricle for use in simulation of myocardial perfusion SPECT and gated SPECT

Simulation is a useful tool in cardiac SPECT to assess quantification algorithms. However, simple equation-based models are limited in their ability to simulate realistic heart motion and perfusion. We present a numerical dynamic model of the left ventricle, which allows us to simulate normal and anomalous cardiac cycles, as well as perfusion defects. Bicubic splines were fitted to a number of control points to represent endocardial and epicardial surfaces of the left ventricle. A transformation from each point on the surface to a template of activity was made to represent the myocardial perfusion. Geometry-based and patient-based simulations were performed to illustrate this model. Geometry-based simulations modeled (1) a normal patient, (2) a well-perfused patient with abnormal regional function, (3) an ischaemic patient with abnormal regional function, and (4) a patient study including tracer kinetics. Patient-based simulation consisted of a left ventricle including a realistic shape and motion obtained from a magnetic resonance study. We conclude that this model has the potential to study the influence of several physical parameters and the left ventricle contraction in myocardial perfusion SPECT and gated-SPECT studies.     

Performance evaluation of stereo endoscopic imaging system incorporating TFT-LCD

This paper presents a 3D endoscopic video system designed to improve visualization and enhance the ability of the surgeon to perform delicate endoscopic surgery. In a comparison of the polarized and electric shutter-type stereo imaging systems, the former was found to be superior in terms of both accuracy and speed for knot-tying and for the loop pass test. The results of our experiments show that the proposed 3D endoscopic system has a sufficiently wide viewing angle and zone for multi-viewing, and that it provides better image quality and more stable optical performance compared with the electric shutter-type.     

Performance evaluation of stereo endoscopic imaging system incorporating TFT-LCD

This paper presents a 3D endoscopic video system designed to improve visualization and enhance the ability of the surgeon to perform delicate endoscopic surgery. In a comparison of the polarized and electric shutter-type stereo imaging systems, the former was found to be superior in terms of both accuracy and speed for knot-tying and for the loop pass test. The results of our experiments show that the proposed 3D endoscopic system has a sufficiently wide viewing angle and zone for multi-viewing, and that it provides better image quality and more stable optical performance compared with the electric shutter-type.     

Disappearance of myocardial perfusion defects on prone SPECT imaging: Comparison with cardiac magnetic resonance imaging in patients without established coronary artery disease

Background  

It is of great clinical importance to exclude myocardial infarction in patients with suspected coronary artery disease who do not have stress-induced ischemia. The diagnostic use of myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) in this situation is sometimes complicated by attenuation artifacts that mimic myocardial infarction. Imaging in the prone position has been suggested as a method to overcome this problem.     

Automated assessment of myocardial SPECT perfusion scintigraphy: a comparison of different approaches of case-based reasoning

OBJECTIVE: This study compared the diagnostic accuracy of different approaches of case-based reasoning (CBR) for the assessment of coronary artery disease (CAD) using thallium-201 myocardial perfusion scintigraphy in comparison with coronary angiography. METHODS AND MATERIAL: For each scintigraphic image set, regional myocardial tracer uptake was obtained by polar map analysis. CBR algorithms based on a similarity measure were employed to identify similar scintigraphic images within the case library, where each case contained the scintigraphic data together with results of coronary angiography. The angiographic data of retrieved cases were then used to determine whether significant CAD was present in one of the major coronary arteries. Three different approaches of CBR were compared: (1) case retrieval based on a global comparison of polar map data (GLOB), (2) case retrieval based on a territorial comparison of polar map data (TER), and (3) case retrieval based on a comparison of a given case with eight sub-libraries classified according to the involvement of the three major coronary vessels using a group similarity measure (GROUP). Two matching algorithms the best-match approach and an adapted retrieving approach were combined with all three case retrieval methods and their influence on the diagnostic accuracy were investigated. RESULTS: For overall detection of significant CAD, the best-match approach of both TER and GROUP retrieval methods showed a higher diagnostic accuracy than the GLOB retrieval method (75% and 77% versus 70%, respectively). ROC analysis for the adapted retrieving approach showed a similar diagnostic accuracy for all three methods with an area under the curve of 0.79, 0.8, and 0.8 for GLOB, TER, and GROUP, respectively. CONCLUSION: The observed improvement in the diagnostic accuracy by the new approaches may lead to further improvements of CBR systems, which have the potential to offer valuable decision support for human readers, especially for less experienced investigators.     

An efficient simulator for pinhole imaging of PET isotopes

Today, small-animal multi-pinhole single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) can reach sub-half-millimeter image resolution. Recently we have shown that dedicated multi-pinhole collimators can also image PET tracers at sub-mm level. Simulations play a vital role in the design and optimization of such collimators. Here we propose and validate an efficient simulator that models the whole imaging chain from emitted positron to detector signal. This analytical simulator for pinhole positron emission computed tomography (ASPECT) combines analytical models for pinhole and detector response with Monte Carlo (MC)-generated kernels for positron range. Accuracy of ASPECT was validated by means of a MC simulator (MCS) that uses a kernel-based step for detector response with an angle-dependent detector kernel based on experiments. Digital phantom simulations with ASPECT and MCS converge to almost identical images. However, ASPECT converges to an equal image noise level three to four orders of magnitude faster than MCS. We conclude that ASPECT could serve as a practical tool in collimator design and iterative image reconstruction for novel multi-pinhole PET.     

Quantitative reconstruction for myocardial perfusion SPECT: an efficient approach by depth-dependent deconvolution and matrix rotation

An efficient reconstruction method for myocardial perfusion single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) has been developed which compensates simultaneously for attenuation, scatter, and resolution variation. The scattered photons in the primary-energy-window measurements are approximately removed by subtracting the weighted scatter-energy-window samples. The resolution variation is corrected by deconvolving the subtracted data with the detector-response kernel in frequency space using the depth-dependent frequency relation. The attenuated photons are compensated by recursively tracing the attenuation factors through the object-specific attenuation map. An experimental chest phantom with defects inside myocardium was used to test the method. The attenuation map of the phantom was reconstructed from transmission scans using a flat external source and a high-resolution parallel-hole collimator of a single-detector system. The detector-response kernel was approximated from measurements of a point source in air at several depths from the collimator surface. The emission data were acquired by the same detector setting. A computer simulation using similar protocols as in the experiment was performed. Both the simulation and experiment showed significant improvement in quantification with the proposed method, as compared to the conventional filtered-backprojection technique. The quantitative gain by the additional deconvolution was demonstrated. The computation time was less than 20 min on a HP/730 desktop computer for reconstruction of a 1282 x 64 array from 128 projections of 128 x 64 samples.     

A methodology for generating normal and pathological brain perfusion SPECT images for evaluation of MRI/SPECT fusion methods: application in epilepsy

Quantitative evaluation of brain MRI/SPECT fusion methods for normal and in particular pathological datasets is difficult, due to the frequent lack of relevant ground truth. We propose a methodology to generate MRI and SPECT datasets dedicated to the evaluation of MRI/SPECT fusion methods and illustrate the method when dealing with ictal SPECT. The method consists in generating normal or pathological SPECT data perfectly aligned with a high-resolution 3D T1-weighted MRI using realistic Monte Carlo simulations that closely reproduce the response of a SPECT imaging system. Anatomical input data for the SPECT simulations are obtained from this 3D T1-weighted MRI, while functional input data result from an inter-individual analysis of anatomically standardized SPECT data. The method makes it possible to control the 'brain perfusion' function by proposing a theoretical model of brain perfusion from measurements performed on real SPECT images. Our method provides an absolute gold standard for assessing MRI/SPECT registration method accuracy since, by construction, the SPECT data are perfectly registered with the MRI data. The proposed methodology has been applied to create a theoretical model of normal brain perfusion and ictal brain perfusion characteristic of mesial temporal lobe epilepsy. To approach realistic and unbiased perfusion models, real SPECT data were corrected for uniform attenuation, scatter and partial volume effect. An anatomic standardization was used to account for anatomic variability between subjects. Realistic simulations of normal and ictal SPECT deduced from these perfusion models are presented. The comparison of real and simulated SPECT images showed relative differences in regional activity concentration of less than 20% in most anatomical structures, for both normal and ictal data, suggesting realistic models of perfusion distributions for evaluation purposes. Inter-hemispheric asymmetry coefficients measured on simulated data were found within the range of asymmetry coefficients measured on corresponding real data. The features of the proposed approach are compared with those of other methods previously described to obtain datasets appropriate for the assessment of fusion methods.     

Performance evaluation of the microPET P4: a PET system dedicated to animal imaging

The microPET Primate 4-ring system (P4) is an animal PET tomograph with a 7.8 cm axial extent, a 19 cm diameter transaxial field of view (FOV) and a 22 cm animal port. The system is composed of 168 detector modules, each with an 8 x 8 array of 2.2 x 2.2 x 10 mm3 lutetium oxyorthosilicate crystals, arranged as 32 crystal rings 26 cm in diameter. The detector crystals are coupled to a Hamamatsu R5900-C8 PS-PMT via a 10 cm long optical fibre bundle. The detectors have a timing resolution of 3.2 ns, an average energy resolution of 26%, and an average intrinsic spatial resolution of 1.75 mm. The system operates in 3D mode without inter-plane septa, acquiring data in list mode. The reconstructed image spatial resolution ranges from 1.8 mm at the centre to 3 mm at 4 cm radial offset. The tomograph has a peak system sensitivity of 2.25% at the centre of the FOV with a 250-750 keV energy window. The noise equivalent count rate peaks at 100-290 kcps for representative object sizes. Images from two phantoms and three different types of laboratory animal demonstrate the advantage of the P4 system over the original prototype microPET. including its threefold improvement in sensitivity and a large axial FOV sufficient to image an entire mouse in a single bed position.     

Performance evaluation of a multi-slice CT system

Our purpose in this study was to characterize the performance of a recently introduced multi-slice CT scanner (LightSpeed QX/i, Version 1.0, General Electric Medical Systems) in comparison to a single-slice scanner from the same manufacturer (HiSpeed CT/i, Version 4.0). To facilitate this comparison, a refined definition of pitch is introduced which accommodates multi-slice CT systems, yet maintains the existing relationships between pitch, patient dose, and image quality. The following performance parameters were assessed: radiation and slice sensitivity profiles, low-contrast and limiting spatial resolution, image uniformity and noise, CT number and geometric accuracy, and dose. The multi-slice system was tested in axial (1, 2, or 4 images per gantry rotation) and HQ (Pitch = 0.75) and HS (Pitch = 1.5) helical modes. Axial and helical acquisition speed and limiting spatial resolution (0.8-s exposure) were improved on the multi-slice system. Slice sensitivity profiles, image noise, CT number accuracy and uniformity, and low-contrast resolution were similar. In some HS-helical modes, helical artifacts and geometric distortion were more pronounced with a different appearance. Radiation slice profiles and doses were larger on the multi-slice system at all scan widths. For a typical abdomen and pelvis exam, the central and surface body doses for 5-mm helical scans were higher on the multi-slice system by approximately 50%. The increase in surface CTDI values (with respect to the single-slice system) was greatest for the 4 x 1.25-mm detector configuration (190% for head, 240% for body) and least for the 4 x 5-mm configuration (53% for head, 76% for body). Preliminary testing of version 1.1 software demonstrated reduced doses on the multi-slice scanner, where the increase in body surface CTDI values (with respect to the single-slice system) was 105% for the 4 x 1.25-mm detector configuration and 10% for the 4 x 5-mm configuration. In summary, the axial and HQ-helical modes of the multi-slice system provided excellent image quality and a substantial reduction in exam time and tube loading, although at varying degrees of increased dose relative to the single-slice scanner.     

Performance of a novel collimator for high-sensitivity brain SPECT

We assessed improvements in performance in detection and estimation tasks due to a novel brain single photon computed tomography collimator. Data were acquired on the CeraSPECT scanner using both new and standard collimators. The new variable focusing collimator SensOgrade samples the projections unequally, with central regions more heavily represented, to compensate for attenuation of counts from central brain structures. Furthermore, it utilizes more of the cylindrical crystal surface. Two phantom studies were performed. The first phantom was a 21-cm-diameter cylindrical background containing nine spheres ranging from 0.5 to 5 cm3 in volume. 99mTc sphere to background activity ratio was 10:1. Twenty-nine 10-min datasets were acquired with each collimator. The second phantom was the Radiology Support Devices (Long Beach, CA) striatal phantom with striatal-background ratios of 10:1 on the left and 5:1 on the right. Twenty-nine 4-min datasets were acquired with each collimator. Perfusion imaging using 99mTc-HMPAO was also performed in three healthy volunteers using both collimators under identical simulations. Projections were reconstructed by filtered backprojection with an unwindowed ramp filter. The nonprewhitening matched filter signal-to-noise ratio (NPW-SNR) was computed as a surrogate for human performance in detecting spherical lesions. Sphere activity concentration, radius, and location coordinates were simultaneously estimated by fitting images to an assumed model using an iterative nonlinear algorithm. Resolution recovery was implicit in the estimation procedure, as the point spread function was incorporated into the model. NPW-SNR for sphere detection was 1.5 to 2 times greater with the new collimator; for the striatal phantom the improvement in SNR was 54%. The SNR for estimating sphere activity concentration improved by 46 to 89% for spheres located more than 5 cm from the phantom center. Images acquired with the standard collimator were too noisy in the central regions to allow estimation of sphere activity. In 99mTc-HMPAO human studies, SNR was improved by 21 to 41% in the cortex, 66% in the basal ganglia, and 74% in the thalamus. The new collimator leads to substantially improved detection and estimation performance throughout the brain. The higher sensitivity will be particularly important for dynamic imaging.     

Performance evaluation of a sub-millimetre spectrally resolved CT system on high- and low-frequency imaging tasks: a simulation

We are developing a photon-counting silicon strip detector with 0.4?× 0.5 mm2 detector elements for clinical CT applications. Except for the limited detection efficiency of approximately 0.8 for a spectrum of 80 kVp, the largest discrepancies from ideal spectral behaviour have been shown to be Compton interactions in the detector and electronic noise. Using the framework of cascaded system analysis, we reconstruct the 3D MTF and NPS of a silicon strip detector including the influence of scatter and charge sharing inside the detector. We compare the reconstructed noise and signal characteristics with a reconstructed 3D MTF and NPS of an ideal energy-integrating detector system with unity detection efficiency, no scatter or charge sharing inside the detector, unity presampling MTF and 1?×?1 mm2 detector elements. The comparison is done by calculating the dose-normalized detectability index for some clinically relevant imaging tasks and spectra. This work demonstrates that although the detection efficiency of the silicon detector rapidly drops for the acceleration voltages encountered in clinical computed tomography practice, and despite the high fraction of Compton interactions due to the low atomic number, silicon detectors can perform on a par with ideal energy-integrating detectors for routine imaging tasks containing low-frequency components. For imaging tasks containing high-frequency components, the proposed silicon detector system can perform approximately 1.1-1.3 times better than a fully ideal energy-integrating system.     

Integration of SimSET photon history generator in GATE for efficient Monte Carlo simulations of pinhole SPECT

The authors developed and validated an efficient Monte Carlo simulation (MCS) workflow to facilitate small animal pinhole SPECT imaging research. This workflow seamlessly integrates two existing MCS tools: simulation system for emission tomography (SimSET) and GEANT4 application for emission tomography (GATE). Specifically, we retained the strength of GATE in describing complex collimator/detector configurations to meet the anticipated needs for studying advanced pinhole collimation (e.g., multipinhole) geometry, while inserting the fast SimSET photon history generator (PHG) to circumvent the relatively slow GEANT4 MCS code used by GATE in simulating photon interactions inside voxelized phantoms. For validation, data generated from this new SimSET-GATE workflow were compared with those from GATE-only simulations as well as experimental measurements obtained using a commercial small animal pinhole SPECT system. Our results showed excellent agreement (e.g., in system point response functions and energy spectra) between SimSET-GATE and GATE-only simulations, and, more importantly, a significant computational speedup (up to approximately 10-fold) provided by the new workflow. Satisfactory agreement between MCS results and experimental data were also observed. In conclusion, the authors have successfully integrated SimSET photon history generator in GATE for fast and realistic pinhole SPECT simulations, which can facilitate research in, for example, the development and application of quantitative pinhole and multipinhole SPECT for small animal imaging. This integrated simulation tool can also be adapted for studying other preclinical and clinical SPECT techniques.