A national survey of the air medical transport of high-risk obstetric patients

INTRODUCTION: Air medical transport of high-risk obstetric (HROB) patients can be accomplished and advantageous for neonate survival and maternal morbidity. A survey of U.S. helicopter air medical programs was conducted to determine the frequency and current practices of HROB transport. METHODS: Each program was contacted by telephone, and air medical personnel were asked to answer 12 questions based on personal experience and statistics compiled by their programs. RESULTS: Of the 203 programs surveyed, 133 (66%) provided responses. The mean number of HROB transports was 45.6 per year (4.6% of the mean 995 total transports). Although 83% of the responding programs used the standard flight crew during the HROB transport, only 52% required crew members to maintain neonatal resuscitation certification. Only 56% of the aircraft allow pelvic access in the normal patient configuration. While only 22% of programs have specific HROB launch (dispatch) protocols, 50% reported having obstetricians involved in dispatching flights, and 84% carry tocolytic agents in their drug kit. The greatest concerns included in-flight delivery (60%), inadequate fetal monitoring (6%), and inexperience (5%). CONCLUSION: While HROBs account for 5% of air medical flights, many programs appear to be poorly prepared for these patients.     

Training of flight nurses on fixed-wing air ambulance services

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to determine the background of fixed-wing air ambulance nurses, what level of training they receive before assignment as a flight nurse, and how closely supervised these fixed-wing air ambulance programs are by their medical directors.

Methods: In 1993, a retrospective statistical questionnaire was sent to 113 fixed-wing air ambulance programs. Chief flight nurses for all 113 fixed-wing air ambulance transport companies were requested to complete a written survey consisting of 17 multiple choice and fill-in-the-blank questions about previous experience, flight nurse qualifications, and content covered in their initial training program.

Results: Of 113 surveys, 72 (64%) responded. The majority (87%) of the flight crew were 30 to 39 years of age. The crew mix is RN/EMT-P in 49%, RN/RN in 25%, and RN/RT in 25%. Experience before flying showed emergency department/intensive care unit in 87% with 13% specialized to a specific type of patient care. The initial training in classroom hours was less than 21 hours in 50% of programs. Training programs were taught by the chief flight nurse in 75%, the medical directors in 74%, and outside organizations in 30%. Fifty-five percent of programs use pilots or other flight crew members to supplement initial training. Only eight of the programs did not have yearly refresher classes. Programs providing more extensive training appear to be affiliated with hospital-based services. Medical directors were involved with the everyday running of air medical transports in 35 of the pro grams (50%), 20 medical directors (28%) did monthly chart reviews only, and 12 (17%) were not involved with their programs. There were three responses to “Other” and two with no responses.

Conclusions: Although fixed-wing flight nurses appear to be medically experienced personnel with previous intensive care unit or emergency department experience, this survey would suggest that fixed-wing flight programs are variable in the amount of initial training, level of instructors, ongoing medical education, and involvement of the medical director. This survey indicates the need for increased standardization of continuing education, as well as increased involvement of medical directorship in fixed-wing air ambulance services.     

Use of restraints in air medical transport: a survey

Although the practice of restraining combative patients is commonplace, restraint has been neither uniform nor scrutinized in the air medical transport environment. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize the use of physical and chemical restraining methods in air medical and critical care transport settings. A retrospective study was performed through faxed questionnaires to 92 medical directors who were members of the Air Medical Physician Association (AMPA). Neither program size nor program type correlated with the use of a particular restraint method. Cloth, including gauze, was the most common physical restraint (73%); both benzodiazepines and paralytics were the most common chemical restraints (53%). Injury to crew members was not widespread. This study of air transport services reported a lower incidence of injury to personnel (17%) than is reported in studies from emergency departments (EDs) (60%). This study also indicated that air transport services possess protocols governing actions toward violent patients (65%) more often than has been reported in studies on EDs (50%). Protocols varied in nature and extent. Consensus protocols should be established and implemented with the aid of detailed data acquisition to standardize personnel education in managing violent patients.     

Influence of the helicopter environment on patient care capabilities: flight crew perceptions

INTRODUCTION: Flight crew perceptions of the effect of the rotary-wing environment on patient-care capabilities have not been subject to statistical analysis. We hypothesized that flight crew members perceived significant difficulties in performing patient-care tasks during air medical transport. METHODS: A survey was distributed to a convenience sample of flight crew members from 20 flight programs. Respondents were asked to compare the difficulty of performing patient-care tasks in rotary-wing and standard (emergency department or intensive care unit) settings. Demographic data collected on respondents included years of flight experience, flights per month, crew duty position and primary aircraft in which the respondent worked. Statistical analysis was performed as appropriate using Student's t-test, type III sum of squares, and analysis of variance. Alpha was defined as p < 0.05. RESULTS: Fifty-five percent of programs (90 individuals) responded. All tasks were significantly rated more difficult in the rotary-wing environment. Ratings were not significantly correlated with flight experience, duty position, flights per month or aircraft used. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that the performance of patient-care tasks are perceived by air medical flight crew to be significantly more difficult during rotary-wing air medical transport than in hospital settings.     

A national survey of air medical infectious disease control practices

INTRODUCTION: Caring for an infectious patient in the air medical environment presents a special challenge to all air crew members (ACMs) involved. The purpose of this study was to survey the infectious disease control practices of air medical programs (AMPs) that are members of the Association of Air Medical Services. METHODS: A structured telephone survey was designed to gather data. Using one interviewer (an undergraduate student) with no knowledge of the study's goal minimized experimental bias. AMPs from 151 geographically selected areas were called between June and August 1996. Only the programs' chief flight nurses (CFNs) were targeted as respondents. RESULTS: The response rate was 91% (138 of 151). Although no program refused to participate, 13 CFNs were unavailable to be interviewed. Mission profile was 32% scene and 68% interhospital with an annual average of 950 patient transports per program. Transport type was 61% rotor-wing aircraft, 17% fixed-wing, and 22% both. Flight physicals for ACMs were required by 57% of the AMPs. Pre-employment screenings for rubella, tuberculosis (TB), and varicella were noted. Interestingly, 17% of the AMPs reported pre-employment HIV testing. Immunization was mandated by 57% of AMPs, including hepatitis B virus, measles, rubella, and tetanus. Nine percent of the respondents refused to accept a transport with specific contagious conditions, primarily TB. A formal decontamination policy was in effect at 88% of the AMPs, and OSHA-approved filter masks were available at 70%. Pathogen exposure reporting was required by 97%. CONCLUSION: A current, comprehensive infection control program, continuing education, and 100% compliance with standard precautions will help reduce the possibility of accidental exposures. These strategies to reduce transmission also can be extended during training sessions to the prehospital and hospital personnel with whom the air medical program serves.     

Presumption of death by air medical transport teams

BACKGROUND: The purpose of this study was to investigate nationwide trends and factors influencing the determination of death practice by rotor-wing air medical transport programs. METHODS: A survey was mailed to all Association of Air Medical Service members concerning demographics, crew configuration, team leader, patient population, field death determination protocols, and other possible associated factors. All rotor-wing air medical transport programs that carry out scene transports were included. RESULTS: The most common field presumption criteria were no response to advanced cardiac life support (77%), no signs of life on scene (65%), and asystole in 2 EKG monitor leads (61%). The most frequent reasons cited not to presume a patient dead in the field were political issues (71%) and signs of life on scene (56%). Criteria other than medical condition that were considered in the decision to presume death were ground personnel input (55%) and program policy/medical control (39%). The following factors did not significantly affect the presumption rate: crew configuration, team leader, transport time, billing, and type of medical control. CONCLUSION: Medical criteria appear to determine presumption of death in the field. Nonmedical factors, such as billing, response, and transport times, do not affect this process.     

Air medical referring customer satisfaction: a valuable insight

INTRODUCTION: To remain competitive and survive, air medical programs must have a mechanism for obtaining customer feedback, especially when alternate transport options are available. The goal of this survey was to examine the air medical service's performance as perceived by customers requesting the transport. METHODS: Surveys were mailed to 400 referring customers who had contact with the flight crew during the transition of patient care. The survey consisted of 16 statements evaluating the service by using a 4-point Likert scale, three demographic questions, one statement evaluating overall satisfaction, and two open-ended questions for comments or suggestions. RESULTS: Two hundred forty-four surveys were returned for a 61% responses rate. Results indicated referring customers are satisfied with the service provided Written comments and suggestions were divided into two categories, positive comments and suggestions for improvement. Three common themes were identified within the suggestions for improvement: crew rapport, communications, and operations. Suggested improvements were evaluated, and selected strategies were incorporated into program operation. CONCLUSION: Customer feedback furnishes valuable insight into their needs and perception of a service. Comments and suggestions for improvement can promote critical inquiry into service operation and provide a catalyst for improvement.     

Disagreement between transport team and ED staff regarding the prehospital assessment of air medically evacuated scene patients

STUDY OBJECTIVE: To determine the rate of disagreement in assessment of significant illness or injury between air medical transport team assessment and emergency department (ED) diagnosis in patients transferred from the scene of an incident to the ED. METHODS: Retrospective analysis was performed on 84 patients transported by medical flight teams from an accident scene to an ED. RESULTS: Results show transport team assessment concurred with ED diagnosis 96.7% of the time; most of the differences in assessment were overassessments by the transport team. Assessment differences occurred most often for abdominal injuries and least often for head injuries. Underassessment occurred most often for spinal cord injuries. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the numerous difficulties involved in patient assessment, data show that the transport teams accurately evaluated patients in most instances. Disagreements in assessment of injury/illness most often were overassessments.     

Prehospital blood transfusion versus crystalloid alone in the air medical transport of trauma patients

Introduction: Differences in prehospital resuscitation measures and outcomes of trauma patients transported by two air medical programs were assessed comparing the prehospital administration of crystalloid only (Group A) with the administration of 2 liters of crystalloid followed by blood (Group B).

Methods: A 1-year retrospective review of flight and hospital records of patients taken to Level I trauma centers by two separate air medical programs was completed. Physiologic variables, total fluids infused, and flight times were compared.

Results: Thirty-one patients (Group A) received crystalloids in flight, and 17 patients received in-flight blood (Group B). No statistical differences were found between the two groups when comparing age, ISS, PS, RTS, GCS, survival, and total fluid volume. Group B had statistically greater mean flight times compared with Group A (P < .05). A difference was demonstrated between groups A and B in pH and HCO₃ measurements (P < .05), with Group B presenting in a more acidotic state on admission to the hospital.

Conclusion: Patients with lengthy flight times, despite the administration of blood products, presented to the trauma center more acidotic than trauma patients receiving only crystalloid. The true impact of blood products on outcome could not be demonstrated because of statistical differences in flight times between the groups. A multicenter study matching flight times, head injury status, and flight type to assess benefit of prehospital utilization of blood products is warranted.     

Trauma and nontrauma cardiopulmonary arrest: a national survey

INTRODUCTION: This survey attempts to identify the current standard of care for the air medical transport of the patient in cardiopulmonary arrest. METHOD: An Association of Air Medical Services/National Flight Nurses Association-approved survey by a single mailing with an anonymous response. SETTING: All rotor-craft programs with current memberships in AAMS. RESULTS: Fifty-three of the 178 questionnaires mailed were returned. Program demographics, crew composition and transport volumes were typical of other reported national experiences. The majority of programs (84%) had standing operational protocols for trauma and non-trauma cardiopulmonary arrests. The indications for not initiating or discontinuing CPR, the transport of the patient in cardiopulmonary arrest, triage and financial considerations varied widely between air medical programs. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides some insight on the current air medical management of the patient in cardiopulmonary arrest. National practice guidelines should be developed and tested prospectively in future studies.     

A nationwide survey of civilian air ambulance services

To identify and characterize civilian air ambulance services, a questionnaire was mailed nationwide to 583 prospective air ambulance services, with 154 responding. Our survey identified differences between hospital, hospital-affiliated, and private air ambulance services as to aircraft ownership, availability, types of aircraft, types of patients being transported, types of medical personnel and equipment, aircraft retrofit, and their feelings regarding air ambulance regulations. We found that hospital air ambulances are better suited for transporting critically ill patients while many private air ambulances appear better suited to transport nonemergency patients. Hospital-affiliated air ambulance services, although not as consistent in providing the specialized care of hospital air ambulances, appear better able to provide critical care than private air ambulance services. Based upon this data, we recommend that air ambulance regulations be directed at levels of patient care. Such regulations and guidelines will assist patient safety during aeromedical transports without jeopardizing currently operating air ambulance services.     

Development of a pregnancy policy for air medical personnel: an administrative approach

Pregnancy of air medical personnel poses a unique challenge for the administration of air medical services. Pregnant staff vary in their approach to individual pregnancy and their desire to continue flight duties. Administrators are limited to actions that ensure optimal care for the patient regardless of the caregivers' health or condition. Air medical programs must balance what is acceptable for patient care and safety with what are legally acceptable practice restrictions. The Staff For Life helicopter service uses experts in obstetric care to evaluate the pregnant staff members' abilities to perform pre-determined physical duties associated with air medical care. A signed consent form acknowledging risk factors associated with air medical care ensures that the flight staff member has had a frank and honest discussion with her physician. The obstetric evaluation and consent form confirm for program administration a pregnant flight staff member's ability to function within her role and removes all ambiguity from the process.     

Air medical transport of patients from offshore oil and gas facilities. Historical accident data and initial experience

The offshore petroleum exploration and production industry (OSI) is isolated from traditional means of access to emergent health care and may benefit from the unique attributes of helicopter air medical transport. This study was undertaken to review the incidence of OSI-related incidents, injuries and deaths, and report the initial experience of a civilian hospital-based helicopter air transport program in the evacuation of offshore patients. It was learned that the mean annual incidence of major OSI accidents from 1980 to 1986 was 19.1 (+/- 7.0). Mean annual mortality and reported injury were 14.7 (+/- 7.6) and 36.7 (+/- 25.4) patients respectively. Fires and explosions were the most frequently reported events at 62 per year (+/- 11.5/year). Nine OSI patients were evacuated by helicopter during the study's eight-month pilot period (seven for trauma and two for medical illness). One of the nine patients had been exposed to a potentially hazardous substance, requiring changes in the air medical team's operations, aircraft and equipment. The study shows that the offshore petroleum environment is ideally suited for air medical transport, as injuries are common and medical illnesses are to be expected. However, air medical programs operating offshore must deal with additional regulatory requirements and develop operational procedures to ensure safety during these flights.     

一起民航客机飞行颠簸事件的医学分析

目的 分析一起飞行颠簸事件发生经过和相关伤员的伤情并探讨现代综合医疗救护方法.方法 对一起严重飞行颠簸事件的伤员伤情及急救处理进行回顾性医学分析.结果 2007年7月6日,南方航空公司一架A330执行CZ322悉尼-广州航班任务时,在高度FL350巡航期间,距Molly(马尼拉区域)航路点约100海里(1海里=1852 m)时,遇晴空湍流发生严重颠簸,造成机上37人不同程度受伤.其中9名为机组乘务员,占机组成员60%;其余28名为旅客,占旅客人数的13%.伤情以头面部和颈部外伤最多,其次为四肢外伤,以皮肤软组织损伤为主,没有脏器损伤及骨折.直接致伤原因为晴空湍流造成飞机颠簸后的机械损伤.事件发生后,机组人员机上进行初步伤情确认及紧急处理.飞机降落在白云机场后,机场急救中心相关人员上机初步救助及转运伤员,南方航空公司航卫中心工作人员进行伤员分类转运,民航广州医院及广州当地有关医院对伤员进行进一步检查及治疗.以上所有环节完成及时,配合良好.伤员均得到及时完善的救治,现已全部痊愈或好转.结论 ①突发的晴空湍流难以发现,对飞行安全威胁很大;②紧急医疗救援的组织管理非常重要;③飞行事故医疗救护的应急组织方案和医疗救援能力非常关键;④对旅客和机组人员要加强安全和防护教育;⑤对受伤乘务员的体检鉴定应注意受伤部位的功能恢复情况;⑥应加强伤员的心理创伤的应急干预和康复工作.     

EMS certification requirements for flight nurses

INTRODUCTION: Emergency medical technician (EMT) or paramedic (EMTP) certification requirements for flight nurses (FNs) providing on-scene patient care vary. We surveyed those requirements and evaluated the relationships between flight team composition or program location and FN EMS certification. METHODS: Telephone survey of all 184 rotor-wing programs responding with a nurse to scenes RESULTS: The overall EMS training requirement for FNs was: none-57.6%, EMT-21.7%, EMTP-14.7%, local credential (not EMT or EMTP)-6.0%. Second team members were EMTP, RN, physician, or respiratory therapist (RRT). Overall, team configuration related significantly to FN EMS certification (P =.01). FN/EMTP and FN/RRT teams were individually significant (P <.01), with FN/EMTP teams tending not to require certification and all FN/RRT teams tending toward a certification requirement. Neither FN/FN nor FN/physician pairings related significantly with FN EMS certification requirements. Regional patterns emerged to both crew configuration and FN EMS certification requirements. CONCLUSION: Most flight programs do not require FN EMT/EMTP certification. Team configuration and geography are related to those requirements.     

Agricultural aviation medicine in the Soviet Union

The Soviet Union has developed one of the world's most sophisticated civil aviation medicine programs. The program gives specific attention to aerial application operations and includes special preflight pilot medical examinations, aircraft with specialized protective airflow systems for the pilots, minimum flight altitude spraying limit of 5 m, and the use of a "chemical log book" by each pilot in addition to the flight log book. These and additional steps--i.e. limiting a pilot's daily agricultural flights to 4-6 h--have led to a reported USSR agricultural aviation annual accident rate near zero. The Soviet workhorse aircraft, the Antonov AN-2, can serve multipurpose roles since, when not used for application flights, it can be rapidly converted to executive, courier, cargo, or air taxi, or air ambulance use. A new, single-engine turbojet biplane, the Polish M-15, is undergoing evaluation in the Soviet Union as a replacement for the AN-2. Countries with very high agricultural aircraft accident rates may wish to study the Soviet approach, especially the use by the pilot of a chemical log book.