Visual attention to variation in female facial skin color distribution

Objectives  Visible skin condition of women is argued to influence human physical attraction. Recent research has shown that people are sensitive to variation in skin color distribution, and such variation affects visual perception of female facial attractiveness, healthiness, and age.
Methods  The eye gaze of 39 males and females, aged 13 to 45 years, was tracked while they viewed images of shape- and topography-standardized stimulus faces that varied only in terms of skin color distribution.
Results  The number of fixations and dwell time were significantly higher when viewing stimulus faces with the homogeneous skin color distribution of young people, compared with those of more elderly people. In accordance with recent research, facial stimuli with even skin tones were also judged to be younger and received higher attractiveness ratings. Finally, visual attention measures were negatively correlated with perceived age, but positively associated with attractiveness judgments.
Conclusions  Variation in visible skin color distribution (independent of facial form and skin surface topography) is able to selectively attract people's attention toward female faces, and this higher attention results in more positive statements about a woman's face.     

Colour homogeneity and visual perception of age,health and attractiveness of male facial skin

Background Visible facial skin condition in females is known to affect perception of age, health and attractiveness. Skin colour distribution in shape‐ and topography‐standardized female faces, driven by localized melanin and haemoglobin, can account for up to twenty years of apparent age perception. Although this is corroborated by an ability to discern female age even in isolated, non‐contextual skin images, a similar effect in the perception of male skin is yet to be demonstrated. Objectives To investigate the effect of skin colour homogeneity and chromophore distribution on the visual perception of age, health and attractiveness of male facial skin. Methods Cropped images from the cheeks of facial images of 160 Caucasian British men aged 10–70 years were blind‐rated for age, health and attractiveness by a total of 308 participants. In addition, the homogeneity of skin images and corresponding eumelanin/oxyhaemoglobin concentration maps were analysed objectively using Haralick’s image segmentation algorithm. Results Isolated skin images taken from the cheeks of younger males were judged as healthier and more attractive. Perception of age, health and attractiveness was strongly related to melanin and haemoglobin distribution, whereby more even distributions led to perception of younger age and greater health and attractiveness. The evenness of melanized features was a stronger cue for age perception, whereas haemoglobin distribution was associated more strongly with health and attractiveness perception. Conclusions Male skin colour homogeneity, driven by melanin and haemoglobin distribution, influences perception of age, health and attractiveness.     

Interaction of skin color distribution and skin surface topography cues in the perception of female facial age and health

Background Skin color distribution and skin surface topography are the predominant drivers of the variation in visible skin condition, and this variation affects one’s perception of age and health. Recent research, however, has shown that the strength of the impact of these features on perception differs such that skin surface topography is a stronger indicator of age, while skin color distribution is more strongly linked to health perception. Objectives To examine further the relative contribution and interaction effects of skin color distribution and surface topography cues on perception by considering small changes of these features. Methods Two sets of images were created by gradually smoothing uneven skin color distribution and removing skin surface topography cues (both in 25% increments) in the digital image of the face of a 61‐year‐old British woman. Omnibus pairwise combinations of modified images were presented to a panel of 160 German men and women (aged 19–49 years). With each pair, they were asked to select the face they considered both younger‐looking and healthier. Results Female facial age perception was more strongly affected by the removal of skin surface topography cues than by changes in skin color distribution, particularly so for topography removal of 50% and more. In contrast, the smoothing of uneven skin color distribution had a stronger effect on the perception of female facial health, particularly for changes of 25% and greater. Conclusions These results support previous reports on the differential effects of visible skin color distribution and surface topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health and show that only relatively small changes are necessary to drive this differential perception.     

Hair pigmentation: a research update

Hair is a uniquely mammalian trait with important functions, most easily appreciated in furred mammals. Our skin and hair color contribute very significantly to our overall visual appearance by highlighting striking variations between human sub-groups. Although melanins, hemoglobins, and carotenoids define the color perceived at the skin surface, our hair color relies only on the presence or absence of different melanins. The hair shaft's physical aspects provide only minor color modification. Various selective evolutionary pressures have determined that within the context of our specific ethnic backgrounds a bewildering array of natural shades are seen; ranging from yellows, reds, and browns to black and that harbinger of lost youth, gray/white hair. Skin/hair follicle melanins are formed in cytoplasmic organelles called melano-somes produced by neural crest-derived pigment cells called melano-cytes and are the product of a complex, phylogenetically ancient, biochemical pathway called melanogenesis. The following provides a review of research presented at the 4th Intercontinental Meeting of Hair Research Societies 2004 and so is not intended to represent a fully comprehensive overview of the subject-for that readers are directed to key references.     

Psychologic and sociologic dimensions of hair: An aspect of the physical attractiveness phenomenon

Hair is more than meets the eye. Despite arguments that the study of its psychologic and sociologic implications is frivolous, hair is important. Another person's hair is one of the first characteristics we notice upon meeting. Our own hair is one of the first and last characteristics we attend to before a meeting or a social engagement.

Observations of contemporary culture suggest that hair has significance to society as a whole and in the lives of individuals. Existing social science research on hair is not voluminous but recently has noted that “the psychology of hair is a subject of growing interest.”¹ At present, social science research addresses hair both directly and indirectly. Direct research focuses on psychologic and sociologic dimensions of hair. While scant, this research investigates color, length/style, and amount (in terms of baldness). Indirect research reflects a greater quantity and involves hair as a determinant of an individual's physical attractiveness. As such, selective social science data about physical attractiveness that is partially determined by hair can be reasonably generalized as social science data that specifically focuses on hair. Given interdependences between hair and physical attractiveness, these relationships reflect a straightforward extrapolation of knowledge. As a result, psychologic and sociologic knowledge of hair exists in a robust body of social science reseach.

Accordingly, this article discusses research on “the physical attractiveness phenomena” as well as an overview on the psychologic and sociologic dimensions of an individual's hair.     

New insights into skin appearance and measurement

When viewing the human face, the eye is drawn automatically to the areas of uneven topography and high color contrast, and the perception of skin age and attractiveness is dependent on these features. Although it is well recognized that topographic features, such as lines and wrinkles, contribute to the perceived age of skin and many cosmetic procedures are directed toward modifying these, the contribution of color contrast to the perceived age of skin has been less widely studied. A new technique, spectrophotometric intracutaneous analysis, is able to measure and characterize the distribution of chromophores in aging human skin and represents a significant advance in evaluation of the role color contrast plays in perception of the aging human face. This technique may be useful in the assessment of cosmetic interventions to reduce the appearance of aging by modification of skin color.     

What women want - quantifying the perception of hair amount: an analysis of hair diameter and density changes with age in caucasian women

Background It has long been known that women lose satisfaction with their hair with ageing. Our data show that caucasian women perceive a decrease in hair amount in their mid 40s with a further decrease in the mid to late 50s, which leads to this dissatisfaction. Neither loss of density (hairs per cm²) nor shaft diameter alone can fully account for this perception. A new metric, ‘hair amount’, is proposed as a quantitative metric combining the impact of both density and diameter on the perception of hair loss. Objectives Creation of a single parameter combining the contribution of diameter and density to perception of female age‐related hair loss. Methods In total, 1099 caucasian women (ages 18–66 years) with self‐perceived hair loss and 315 caucasian women (ages 17–86 years) with no complaint of hair loss were evaluated. Scalp hair diameter was measured using optical fibre diameter and image analysis. Scalp hair density was measured by phototrichogram with manual or automated counting. Results Parietal scalp hair diameter increased from ages 20 to 40–45 years, then decreased. Hair density was highest in the youngest group, age 20–30 years, and decreased thereafter with increasing rate. In women self‐perceiving hair loss, the rate of decrease in density was significantly faster than for women with no self‐perception of hair loss. The combined metric ‘hair amount’ was relatively constant at younger ages, increasing very slightly to age 35 years, then decreasing significantly. Conclusions Increasing hair shaft diameter offsets decreasing hair density through the mid 30s. After that, a lower rate of diameter increase combined with the decrease in density begins to significantly impact the perception of hair amount so that thinning becomes increasingly more noticeable in the mid 40s to the mid to late 50s. Quantitative determination of hair amount is a useful tool to combine the contributions of hair density and diameter to women’s perception of age‐related hair loss.     

A review of the role of estrogen in dermal aging and facial attractiveness in women

Estrogens are known to have protective and favorable influences on skin health; conversely, androgens oppose the actions of estrogens. Estrogen's chemical messages are transmitted via the classical nuclear hormone estrogen receptors (ER) alpha and beta and the rapid‐acting G‐coupled membrane estrogen receptor. Androgens [both testosterone and 5α‐dihydrotestosterone (5α‐DHT)] bind the same androgen receptor. Estrogen levels peak in the mid‐ to late 20s in women and then decline by 50% by 50 years of age and dramatically decrease further after menopause. The loss of estrogens with aging contributes to diminished dermal health, whereas estrogen hormone therapy [eg, oral conjugated equine estrogens (CEE)] restores skin health. Several reports suggest positive correlations between the levels of circulating estrogens and: (1) perceived age, (2) attractiveness, (3) enhanced skin health, and (4) facial coloration in women. Based upon a psychological dermato‐endocrine perspective, the positive correspondence of high estrogens levels with perceived age and facial attractiveness in women especially with aging demonstrates the importance of hormonal influences on observed dermal health and youthful appearance.     

Hair Shaft Damage from Heat and Drying Time of Hair Dryer

Background

Hair dryers are commonly used and can cause hair damage such as roughness, dryness and loss of hair color. It is important to understand the best way to dry hair without causing damage.

Objective

The study assessed changes in the ultra-structure, morphology, moisture content, and color of hair after repeated shampooing and drying with a hair dryer at a range of temperatures.

Methods

A standardized drying time was used to completely dry each hair tress, and each tress was treated a total of 30 times. Air flow was set on the hair dryer. The tresses were divided into the following five test groups: (a) no treatment, (b) drying without using a hair dryer (room temperature, 20℃), (c) drying with a hair dryer for 60 seconds at a distance of 15 cm (47℃), (d) drying with a hair dryer for 30 seconds at a distance of 10 cm (61℃), (e) drying with a hair dryer for 15 seconds at a distance of 5 cm (95℃). Scanning and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and lipid TEM were performed. Water content was analyzed by a halogen moisture analyzer and hair color was measured with a spectrophotometer.

Results

Hair surfaces tended to become more damaged as the temperature increased. No cortex damage was ever noted, suggesting that the surface of hair might play a role as a barrier to prevent cortex damage. Cell membrane complex was damaged only in the naturally dried group without hair dryer. Moisture content decreased in all treated groups compared to the untreated control group. However, the differences in moisture content among the groups were not statistically significant. Drying under the ambient and 95℃ conditions appeared to change hair color, especially into lightness, after just 10 treatments.

Conclusion

Although using a hair dryer causes more surface damage than natural drying, using a hair dryer at a distance of 15 cm with continuous motion causes less damage than drying hair naturally.     

The effects of skin colour distribution and topography cues on the perception of female facial age and health

According to evolutionary psychology, the preference for some facial characteristics reflects adaptations for mate choice because they signal aspects of mate quality. Although morphological features such as facial symmetry and sexually dimorphic traits have been studied extensively in recent years, little is known about skin condition in this context. The preferences for young and healthy looking skin could offer an explanation as to why women place such an importance on the condition of their skin and its refinement through e.g., cosmetic products. Recent research showed that facial skin colour distribution significantly influences the perception of age and attractiveness of female faces, independent of skin surface topography cues. However, the relative effect of skin colour distribution and topography cues on age and health perception remains to be investigated. We present data showing that both skin colour distribution and skin surface topography cues not only significantly influence the perception of female facial age and health but also convey differential information with regard to the strength of these effects. Our data indicate that skin surface topography cues account for a large proportion of variation in facial age perception, whereas skin colour distribution seems to be a stronger health cue.     

Hair density, hair diameter and the prevalence of female pattern hair loss

BACKGROUND: Female pattern hair loss is common but estimates of its prevalence have varied widely. The relationships between the clinical diagnosis of female pattern hair loss and objective measurements of hair density and hair diameter have not previously been evaluated. OBJECTIVES: To determine the prevalence of female pattern hair loss and to relate the clinical findings to hair density and hair diameter. METHODS: We examined 377 women, aged 18--99 years, who presented to a general dermatology clinic with complaints unrelated to hair growth (the unselected sample). A second group of 47 women referred with typical female pattern hair loss was included in analyses of the relationships between hair density, hair diameter and the clinical diagnosis. Hair density was measured using a photographic method. In each subject the major and minor axis diameters were measured in a random sample of 50 hairs. RESULTS: Six per cent of women aged under 50 years were diagnosed as having female pattern hair loss, increasing to 38% in subjects aged 70 years and over. The mean +/- SEM hair density was 293 +/- 61.3 hairs cm(-2) at age 35 years, falling to 211 +/- 55.1 hairs cm(-2) at age 70 years. Hair density showed a normal distribution in the unselected sample. Most women classified as having female pattern hair loss had hair densities within the lower half of the normal distribution. The perception of hair loss was determined mainly by low hair density (ANOVA P < 0.001), but there was overlap in hair density between women classified as having Ludwig I hair loss and the no hair loss group, which was partly accounted for by differences in mean hair diameter (ANOVA P < 0.001). Low hair density was associated with fewer hairs of all diameters. CONCLUSIONS: Hair density in women is distributed as a normal variable, indicating that it is determined as a multifactorial trait. Women with female pattern hair loss have a hair density which falls below the mean but lies within the spectrum of the normal distribution, although other factors, including hair diameter, may affect the subjective impression of hair loss. The hair diameter data suggest that low hair density is not due to progressive diminution in hair follicle size and that follicular miniaturization may occur within the space of a single hair cycle.     

Characterization and quantification of the skin radiance through new digital image analysis

BACKGROUND/AIMS: The individual perception of the radiance is difficult to define and quantify because it often includes physiological and psychological attributes. Although if they are differences in the perception of the skin radiance, dermatologists and experts in cosmetology consider that the complexion must reflect the general health of an individual. The aim of this work was to determine existing conditions of skin radiance via digital image analysis, consumer's perception and experts' evaluation, and propose a mathematical model to quantify the global radiance phenomenon. METHODS: A round table meeting was organized in order to have free discussions about skin radiance. The qualitative assessment of skin radiance was carried out using a self-assessment questionnaire constructed according to the information obtained from the round table meeting. A simplified version of this questionnaire was proposed to experts. One hundred female subjects belonging to three different age groups (20-30, 30-40, 40-50 and >50 years old) participated in the study. Facial images were taken using a video imaging with visual control system to ensure consistency of images among volunteers. From these images, algorithms based on the principle of polynomial approximation, segmentation by maximalization of the entropy and the Logarithmic Image Processing model were required to extract skin radiance parameters. Multiple regression analysis was used to establish, via consumer's perception of the skin radiance and experts' evaluation studies, the degree to which each of the independent parameters contributes to the skin radiance perception. RESULTS: All the items of the self-assessment questionnaire explained 74% of the variation of the skin radiance. Data from experts' analysis explained 87% of the variation of skin radiance. In the two cases, skin radiance appeared to be independent of age and the presence of wrinkles. From the image analysis, we observed that the skin surface parameters explained 20% of the variation of the skin radiance expressed by experts and 24% of the variation of the skin radiance expressed by volunteers. As a result, about 80% of the variation is not explained by the instrumental data. If we combine experts' analysis and instrumental data, we obtain a mathematical model that explains 92% of the variation of the skin radiance. CONCLUSION: The questionnaire constructed from this brainstorming session allowed volunteers and experts to judge their perception of skin radiance more precisely. Video imaging appears as an interesting method to quantify visual properties of the skin and to visualize what the consumer perceives of skin radiance. However, the mathematical model proposed from the skin surface parameters analysis does not totally explain the global perception of skin radiance. In the future, it will be necessary to develop new data-processing programs to quantify subjective parameters in order to validate our mathematical model.     

Synopsis of laser assisted hair removal systems

Conventional treatment options for hypertrichosis and hirsutism are tedious and time consuming. Laser hair removal offers an efficient way to permanently reduce excessive hair growth. Hair is damaged using the principle of selective photothermolysis with wavelengths of light well absorbed by follicular melanin and pulse durations that selectively thermally damage the target without damaging surrounding tissue. Patients with dark hair and light skin are ideal candidates. Multiple treatments (3 to 6) performed every 6-8 weeks are necessary to achieve a permanent reduction of hair growth. As the field develops, a better sense of the effectiveness of laser hair removal will evolve and reasonable expectations will be determined.     

The Medical and Psychosocial Associations of Alopecia: Recognizing Hair Loss as More Than a Cosmetic Concern

Alopecia encompasses a broad range of hair loss disorders, generally categorized into scarring and non-scarring forms. Depending on the specific pathogenesis of hair loss and geographic location, a number of psychiatric and medical comorbidities, including but not limited to thyroid disease, lupus erythematosus, diabetes mellitus, atopic dermatitis, sinusitis, coronary artery disease, anxiety, depression, and suicidality, have been identified in association with alopecia. In addition to the numerous associated comorbid conditions, patients with alopecia report decreased quality-of-life measures across symptomatic, functional, and global domains. While alopecia can affect patients of all ages, genders, and ethnicities, hair loss may more significantly impact women as hair represents an essential element of femininity, fertility, and female attractiveness in society. Individuals of lower socioeconomic status may also face health disparities in the context of alopecia as a majority of hair loss treatments are considered cosmetic in nature and accordingly are not covered by third-party insurance providers. Although traditionally thought of as a merely aesthetic concern, alopecia encompasses a significant burden of disease with well-defined comorbid associations and genuine psychosocial implications, and thus should be assessed and managed within a proper medical paradigm.

     

发疹性毳毛囊肿1例

患者女,40岁。前胸部出现丘疹2年,无自觉症状。皮损为直径2～4mm的丘疹,呈肤色。皮损组织病理示:真皮内见囊肿样结构,囊壁为复层鳞状上皮,囊内见多个毳毛横断面或斜断面。诊断:发疹性毳毛囊肿。     

The shape of beauty: determinants of female physical attractiveness

Rarely has one research area gained as much attention as that which is observed for female physical attractiveness. The past decade has resulted in numerous, exciting developments, particularly with respect to three proposed determinants of beauty: waist to hip ratio (WHR), body mass index (BMI), and curvaceousness. The goal of our paper is to provide a highly necessary review of contemporary research on the female attractiveness, including an in-depth examination of these factors. In our review, we first discuss WHR, an index of fat deposition, which is calculated by measuring the circumference of the waist compared to the circumference of the hips. WHR is controlled by the sex hormones, and increases as women age, and hence, may influence perceptions of attractiveness. This factor has been hotly contested, as some researchers have claimed that a WHR of approximately 0.7 is universally most attractive, whereas others have found inconsistent findings, or suggest the importance of other factors, such as BMI. Body mass index (BMI), calculated by dividing the body weight (in kilograms) by height (in meters) squared, serves as a measure of body fat. Although WHR and BMI are correlated, they lead to different conclusions, and the importance of BMI as a measure of female attractiveness is debated in the literature. Similar to WHR research, BMI and its role in attractiveness is not cross-culturally consistent and is affected by the availability of resources within a given environment. It may be the case that both WHR and BMI influence female attractiveness. However, there has been little investigation of this possibility. We have explored this issue in our research, which revealed that both influence attractiveness, but in addition, we noticed that curvaceousness was also a factor. Curvaceousness is the degree of "hourglass" shape as determined, for example, by the size of the bust, relative to the circumference of the hips and waist, and the size of the buttocks. However, curvaceousness does not appear to be temporally stable as a marker of attractiveness, and it is not consistent across modes of presentation. For example, models in male-oriented magazines are more curvaceous than models in female-oriented magazines. In summary, faced with these recent findings, it is difficult to ascertain agreement among the various factors, especially when researchers investigate each determinant in isolation. We conclude that, although researchers have made many important initial steps in examining female attractiveness, there remains much to be discovered.     

Influence of facial skin attributes on the perceived age of Caucasian women

Background and objective The facial appearance of a person does not always reflect the chronological age; some people look younger or older than they really are. Many studies have described the changes in skin properties (colour, wrinkles, sagging, micro relief, etc.) with age, but few of them have analysed their influence on the perceived age. The primary objective of this study was to assess the contribution of individual skin attributes of the face on the perceived age of Caucasian women. Secondary objectives were to assess the influence of age and gender of graders with regard to the age perception. Subjects and method A random sample of 173 subjects of 20 to 74 years of age was taken from a database of more than 5000 healthy Caucasian women. A trained grader performed visual assessment of facial skin attributes (using a visual analogue scale), and a front face photograph was taken from each subject. Photographs were shown to 48 graders (20 men and 28 women, aged 22–64 years) who were asked to estimate the age of the subjects. Graders were classified as young (less than 35 years), middle age (35–50 years) and seniors (older than 50 years). Partial Least Square regression models were built to predict the chronological and the perceived age from the measured facial individual attributes. The contribution of each attribute within the regression model enabled to measure the relevance of this attribute with regards to age prediction. Results The eye area and the skin colour uniformity were the main attributes related to perceived age. For age prediction, older graders’ estimations were more driven by lips border definition shape and eyes opening, whereas younger graders’ (older than 50 years) estimations were more driven by dark circles, nasolabial fold and brown spots. There were statistically significant differences in graders’ age perception between gender and among age ranges. Our findings suggest that female graders are more accurate than male, and younger graders (under 35 years) are more accurate than older (over 50 years) to predict Caucasian women age from facial photographs. Conclusions Different skin attributes influence the estimation of age. These attributes have a different weight in the evaluation of the perceived age, depending on the age and of the observer. The most important attributes to estimate age are eyes, lips and skin colour uniformity.     

Chronic Erythematous Plaque on the Leg of an 18 Month‐Old Boy

An adolescent girl with blond hair, her family, and classmates noted that her hair was progressively turning green. Initially the green color was thought to be secondary to chlorine from the local swimming pool. This was not the real cause. The chlorotrichosis was actually caused by an excessive amount of dissolved copper from copper pipes in the home plumbing system. Copper had leached from the plumbing and accumulated in the pipes because the rented house had been vacant for many months. Risk factors for chlorotrichosis include light‐colored hair, copper plumbing, long periods when the water was not thoroughly flushed out of the copper pipes, and frequent shampooing.     

Quantification of female pattern hair loss: a study in a Turkish population

Studies dealing with the relationship between the clinical staging of female pattern hair loss (FPHL) and quantitative measurements of hair parameters are limited. This study was performed to quantify Turkish women's hair characteristics in FPHL, to assess the relationship between clinical presentations of FPHL with hair density and anagen hair ratio and to compare the differences in hair parameters between FPHL and normal women, using epiluminescence microscopy combined with digital image analysis (Trichoscan). Hair density and anagen hair ratio measurements of 39 patients with FPHL were evaluated according to clinical stages and compared with those of 31 healthy volunteers. The results of digital image analysis were compared with the results of visual counting using the photomacrographs of the same images. Mid-scalp hair density and anagen ratio of the patients were detected to be significantly lower than those of the controls. The visual counting detected significant differences among the hair densities of all groups including controls, Ludwig I, and Ludwig II/III groups, while digital image analysis revealed a significant difference only between controls and Ludwig II/III groups. Thus digital image analysis was found to underestimate hair density, and the amount of underestimation demonstrated a positive correlation with hair density. In conclusion, diminished hair density seems to be the main sign in the clinical diagnosis of hair loss, although digital image analysis was found to be less competent than visual counting in detecting hair density. Thus, the increase in hair density in the assessment of various treatment modality effects may be underestimated by digital image analysis.