“I won,but I'm not getting my hopes up”: Depression moderates the relationship of outcomes and reward anticipation

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) in adolescents is characterized by alterations in positive emotions and reward processing. Recent investigations using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) find depression-related differences in reward anticipation. However, it is unknown whether feedback influences subsequent reward anticipation, which may highlight the context of reward processing. Ten youth with MDD and 16 youth with no history of MDD completed an fMRI assessment using a reward task. Reward anticipation was indexed by blood oxygen level dependent signal change in the striatum following winning, losing, non-winning, and non-losing outcomes. A significant interaction between diagnostic status and outcome condition predicted reward anticipation in the caudate. Decomposition of the interaction indicated that following winning outcomes, depressed youth demonstrated reduced reward anticipation relative to healthy youth. However, no significant differences between depressed and healthy youth were found after other outcomes. Reward anticipation is altered following winning outcomes. This finding has implications for understanding the developmental pathophysiology of MDD and suggests specific contexts where altered motivational system functioning may play a role in maintaining depression.     

I cannot remember,but I know my past events: remembering and knowing in a patient with amnesic syndrome

Case Y.K. has severe anterograde amnesia and a selective loss of specific personal episodes in his remote memories (Hirano & Noguchi, 1998). In this paper, we attempted to analyze remembering (R) and knowing (K) responses, that is, the relationship between autobiographical remembering and remembering accompanied by subjective experience. Although the rate of R responses was significantly higher than that of K responses in control subjects, Y.K.'s R responses were rare in all subtypes of remote memories. Based on these results, we conclude that Y.K.'s memories on autobiographical incident task were not based on episodic memory but rather on semantic memory. Thus, the autobiographical incidents he could recall were not episodic memory, and his semantic memory made him recall information as fact rather than episode.     

Effects of reward anticipation, reward presentation, and spatial parameters on the firing of single neurons recorded in the subiculum and nucleus accumbens of freely moving rats

The subiculum is the major output of the hippocampal formation (involved in spatial processing). Subicular afferents innervate the nucleus accumbens, which is thought to integrate limbic reward information with motor output. Rats were chronically implanted with extra-cellular recording electrodes aimed at both structures to investigate the functional relationship between them. Animals were then trained on a spatial task in which they searched for random locations where they would receive rewarding medial forebrain bundle stimulation. At random times a cue tone was sounded, indicating that the reward location was in the center of the environment. Rats quickly learned to run to the center upon hearing the tone in order to receive a reward. Simultaneously recorded groups of up to eight subicular and accumbens neurons were found to display alterations in firing rate after rewarding medial forebrain bundle stimulation. Moreover, neurons in both subiculum and accumbens displayed alterations in firing rate prior to arrival at the center during cued runs, i.e. they anticipated predictable rewards. Subicular and accumbens firing was also correlated with spatial location. However, neurons in accumbens were more likely to respond to task events, and these responses were more varied, than those seen in subiculum. Thus, while convergence of spatial and reward information occurs at the level of single cells in both subiculum and nucleus accumbens, these structures also display functional localization.     

"Usual care" for major depression in the 1990s: characteristics and expert-estimated outcomes

OBJECTIVE: Motivated by the public health importance of major depression and calls to study the effectiveness of treatments frequently used in routine practice, the authors characterized the usual outpatient care of acute-phase major depression in a privately insured population as well as the effectiveness of this care. METHOD: Upon identifying frequent antidepressant interventions from a large administrative database spanning the years 1991-1996, and after completing an exhaustive review of published efficacy evidence, the authors undertook a two-stage elicitation process. A panel of 10 experts estimated probabilities of symptom-based outcomes for 120 combinations of treatment, provider type, and patient characteristics seen in 9,054 depressive episodes. The 10 most frequent treatments, utilized in 90% of the episodes, are reported here. RESULTS: A short course of psychotherapy delivered by specialists to healthy premenopausal women was the most frequent pattern of care. Only two prevalent treatments had adequate evidence. On the basis of expert-estimated rates of remission (Hamilton Depression Rating Scale score <8), response (score <13), and no change (score >/=18), three of the 10 most frequent treatments were highly effective, two were moderately effective, and five were minimally effective. CONCLUSIONS: Although experts gave high marks to three commonly used treatments, the expert-estimated effectiveness for this particular system of care was quite modest. More research is needed on the outcomes associated with specific usual care practices as well as the contributors to ineffective care.     

The role of adherence in mediating the relationship between depression and health outcomes

Depression has been linked to poor health outcome in a number of studies; however, the mechanism underlying this relationship has received little attention. This paper explores the possibility that adherence mediates the relationship between depression and outcome. Principal findings regarding the relationship between depression, adherence, and outcome are reviewed. The data suggest that depression is related, at least moderately, to poorer adherence to a variety of treatment components. The relationship between adherence and outcome is more difficult to establish. In addition, current data, albeit limited, do not support the hypothesis that adherence mediates the relationship between depression and outcome. An alternative model in which adherence precedes and influences both mood state and health outcome is discussed. Finally, possible explanations for these relationships are explored and suggestions for future research provided.     

Homocysteinemia in psychiatric disorders: association with dementia and depression,but not schizophrenia in female patients

Summary. Homocysteinemia has been reported to be a risk factor for dementia, depression and also schizophrenia, the latter in a gender-specific manner. We have determined homocysteine in female inpatients suffering from various psychiatric diseases to further investigate a possible association between homocysteinemia and psychiatric disorders. Homocysteine was not elevated in schizophrenic females (mean, 11.6±5.8µmol/l); in accordance with previous studies, homocysteinemia could be found frequently in dementia of different aetiology (mean, 17.2±6.7µmol/l), but also to a slighter extent in depressive disorders (mean, 12.9±3.8µmol/l), especially in elderly subjects. We thus suggest that homocysteinemia, at least in females, is an unspecific risk factor for organic brain disorders, but not endogenous psychoses.     

"It's just not all teenage moms": diversity, support, and relationship in family services

Social support is often used in family services, implicitly or explicitly, as a tool for enhancing family functioning. Using data from a focus group study, this article explores aspects of the relationships parents develop through participation in a family support program. Program structures and processes shaping relationships are also considered. Findings are then interpreted through a social capital theoretical lens, and implications for practice are discussed.     

Naltrexone attenuates cue- but not drug-induced methamphetamine seeking: a possible mechanism for the dissociation of primary and secondary reward

The present study was aimed to clarify the role of the opioid system in the reinstatement of methamphetamine (METH)-seeking behavior in METH self-administering rats. Following 12 days of self-administration of METH, the replacement of METH with saline resulted in a gradual decrease in lever press responses (extinction). Under extinction conditions, METH-priming or re-exposure to cues previously paired with METH infusion markedly increased the responses (reinstatement of drug-seeking). Naltrexone administered 30 min before re-exposure to METH-associated cues attenuated reinstatement of drug-seeking behavior. On the other hand, administration of this antagonist had no effect on the reinstatement induced by METH-priming. We discussed these findings in relation with the dissociation of primary and secondary reward, suggesting that an opioid mechanism is responsible for this dissociation. Further, these results indicate the possibility of using naltrexone as an anti-relapse agent.     

Association of the GDNF gene with depression and heroin dependence,but not schizophrenia,in a Chinese population

The association of seven GDNF tag SNPs with depression, heroin dependence (HD) and schizophrenia was evaluated in Chinese. An increased risk of HD and depression was associated with rs2910709 T/T genotype and rs884344 C allele, respectively, suggesting GDNF is a novel susceptibility gene for depression and HD.     

Basolateral amygdala inactivation by muscimol, but not ERK/MAPK inhibition, impairs the use of reward expectancies during working memory

Rats were trained on a delayed matching to position (DMTP) task that embedded either a differential outcomes procedure (DOP) or a non-differential outcomes procedure (NOP). The DOP, via Pavlovian conditioning (stimulus–outcome associations), results in the use of unique reward expectancies that facilitate learning and memory performance above subjects trained with a NOP that requires subjects to retain cue information for accurate choice behavior (stimulus–response associations). This enhancement in learning and/or memory produced by the DOP is called the differential outcomes effect (DOE). After being trained on the DMTP task, rats were implanted with two cannulae aimed at the basolateral amygdala (BLA) nuclei. Rats trained with the DOP, relative to those trained with the NOP, displayed enhanced short-term memory (STM) performance under vehicle conditions (i.e. the DOE). However, injections of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)_A agonist muscimol into the BLA dose-dependently (0.0625 and 0.125 µg) impaired STM performance only in DOP-trained rats. These results support the role of the BLA in the use of established reward expectancies during a short-term working memory task. Despite the fact that extracellular signal-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinases (ERK/MAPK) have been shown to be necessary for amygdala-dependent long-term potentiation and some forms of long-term and STM, inhibition of the ERK/MAPK signaling cascade by U0126 (2.0 or 4.0 µg) in the BLA was not critical for updating the STM of either spatial information or reward expectation.     

Disease stage,but not sex,predicts depression and psychological distress in Huntington's disease: A European population study

ObjectiveDepression and anxiety significantly affect morbidity in Huntington's disease. Mice.models of Huntington's disease have identified sex differences in mood-like behaviours that vary across disease lifespan, but this interaction has not previously been explored in humans with Huntington's disease. However, among certain medical populations, evidence of sex differences in mood across various disease stages has been found, reflecting trends among the general population that women tend to experience anxiety and depression 1.5 to 2 times more than men. The current study examined whether disease stage and sex, either separately or as an interaction term, predicted anxiety and depression in Huntington's disease.MethodsA cross-sectional study of REGISTRY data involving 453 Huntington's disease participants from 12 European countries was undertaken using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. A series of multiple regression analyses were undertaken to discover to what extent disease stage and sex predicted anxiety, depression, and general distress after controlling for a number of known predictors of mood difficulties.ResultsDisease stage, but not sex, was found to predict depressive symptoms and general distress. Neither disease stage nor sex predicted anxiety. Furthermore, an interaction term computed for disease stage and sex did not contribute to the models tested.ConclusionIn terms of considering risks to developing depression and anxiety in the Huntington's disease population, practitioners may need to pay special attention to disease stage progression (but not sex differences) to enable early detection and treatment of depression (but not anxiety).     

Cerebrospinal fluid GABA concentration: relationship with impulsivity and history of suicidal behavior, but not aggression, in human subjects

The objective of this study was to assess the relationship between cerebrospinal fluid concentrations of the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and measures of impulsivity and related behaviors (aggression and suicidality) in healthy volunteer and personality disordered subjects. CSF GABA levels, and measures of impulsivity, aggression, and history of suicidal behavior were obtained by morning lumbar puncture in 57 healthy volunteer subjects and in subjects with personality disorder. CSF GABA levels were not found to correlate with measures of aggression but were found to correlate directly with measures of impulsivity; e.g., a composite measure of impulsivity in all subjects (r = 0.35, df = 46, P = 0.015) and in personality disordered subjects examined separately (r = 0.39, df = 30, P = 0.029). In the personality disorder group, CSF GABA levels were higher among subjects with a history of suicidal behavior compared with those without this history. These data suggest that central GABAergic function correlates directly with impulsiveness and history of suicidal behavior, but not aggressiveness, in personality disordered subjects. This may be consistent with observations that high doses of benzodiazepines can lead to “behavioral disinhibition” in human subjects. Further work assessing this and other aspects of the central GABA system in personality disordered subjects are warranted.     

Evidence of a possible role of altered angiotensin function in the treatment, but not etiology, of depression.

BACKGROUND: Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors are reportedly effective in the treatment of depression; furthermore, antidepressants decrease angiotensin function. It appears therefore that reduced angiotensin function may be important in the treatment of depression. The aims of this study were to elucidate the actions of antidepressants on angiotensin receptors; to investigate the antidepressant potential of an angiotensin antagonist; and to study angiotensin receptors in depressed puerperal women. METHODS: The effects of antidepressant drugs on angiotensin receptors and the relationship between mood and platelet receptors in puerperal women were investigated using radioligand binding. The antidepressant potential of the angiotensin antagonist losartan was assessed using the mouse forced swim test. RESULTS: Desipramine, but neither fluoxetine nor tranylcypromine, displaced angiotensin from its receptor; however, there was no significant relationship between receptor number and depressed mood. In the forced swim test losartan was shown to possess antidepressant like activity. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that antidepressants differ in the mechanism by which they reduce angiotensin function, but the link between antidepressants and angiotensin is reiterated by the demonstration that losartan possesses antidepressant like activity. There is, however, no evidence of abnormal angiotensin receptors in women with depressed mood postpartum.     

"She" is not like "I": the tie between language and action is in our imagination

Embodied theories hold that understanding what another person is doing requires the observer to map that action directly onto his or her own motor representation and simulate it internally. The human motor system may, thus, be endowed with a "mirror matching" device through which the same motor representation is activated, when the subject is either the performer or the observer of another's action ("self-other shared representation"). It is suggested that understanding action verbs relies upon the same mechanism; this implies that motor responses to these words are automatic and independent of the subject of the verb. In the current study, participants were requested to read silently and decide on the syntactic subject of action and nonaction verbs, presented in first (1P) or third (3P) person, while TMS was applied to the left hand primary motor cortex (M1). TMS-induced motor-evoked potentials were recorded from hand muscles as a measure of cortico-spinal excitability. Motor-evoked potentials increased for 1P, but not for 3P, action verbs or 1P and 3P nonaction verbs. We provide novel demonstration that the motor simulation is triggered only when the conceptual representation of a word integrates the action with the self as the agent of that action. This questions the core principle of "mirror matching" and opens to alternative interpretations of the relationship between conceptual and sensorimotor processes.     

Degree,but not direction of grip strength asymmetries,is related to depression and anxiety in an elderly population

Despite the abundance of studies on asymmetries in manual laterality, a marker for atypical brain lateralization in depression and anxiety, findings in this area are mixed. Traditionally, research have looked at individual differences in depression and anxiety as a function of the direction of asymmetry. However, recent research has emphasized on studying the degree of asymmetry in addition to its direction. To these ends, the present study aims to unravel the associations between the degree and direction of manual lateralization, and depression/anxiety. Cognitively healthy elderlies (N?=?326, 91 males, M_age?=?68) were administered grip strength assessments on both hands and self-report measures of depression and anxiety. Partial correlation analyses controlling for age, education and sex revealed significant positive associations between degree of lateralization and anxiety in the overall sample and among right-dominant participants, as well as a significant positive relationship between degree of lateralization and depression among right-dominant participants. None of the correlations involving the direction of lateralization yielded significance, neither was there significant differences between left- and right-dominant participants on depression and anxiety scores. These findings suggest that the degree of manual lateralization, but not direction, is related to depression and anxiety at least among right-dominant individuals.     

"I didn't think I was going to like working with him, but now I really do!": examining peer narratives of significant disability

Mainstream research that examines relations between students with significant disabilities and their peers continues to assess such relations on the capacity of students with significant disabilities to evoke and sustain them. This article adopts a disability studies approach to situate peer relations within the larger classroom context. The author draws on the data collected from a qualitative study that investigated the participation of a student with significant disabilities, Harry (a pseudonym), in an inclusive 1st-grade classroom. The author describes peer relations with Harry as embedded within the paradigmatic "family" narrative within this setting. Despite its benefits, the adherence to a normative framework within this family narrative constrained Harry's participation and the kinds of relations that evolved between him and his peers.