Recent progress in therapeutic strategies for microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in neuropathologies

Introduction: Chronic activation of microglia is the hallmark of numerous neuropathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and multiple sclerosis. The activated microglia perpetuate inflammation by releasing an array of pro-inflammatory and neurotoxic factors, which eventually exacerbate neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration upon chronic activation of these cells. However, under acute conditions, activated microglia elicit pro-inflammatory as well as anti-inflammatory responses that are associated with neuroprotection. Given the role of microglia in neuroinflammation, recent studies have attempted to unravel the mechanisms that aid to establish microglial cell-based therapy.

Areas covered: While total suppression of microglial activation may compromise its beneficial role in tissue repair in the aftermath of an insult, the benefits of modulating microglial activation and promoting microglia polarization to a neuroprotective phenotype have been highlighted recently.

Expert opinion: So far, the therapeutic strategy focussed on neutralizing microglia-mediated neuroinflammation using drugs that block the release of pro-inflammatory mediators has limitations, such as unwarranted side effects. Recent advances reveal several alternative molecular targets and potential epi-drugs that are capable of modulating microglial function and promoting neuroprotection. This review discusses the recent progress made in understanding the mechanisms of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation in various neuropathologies, and the emerging anti-inflammatory therapeutic strategies in this field.     

FLZ attenuates learning and memory deficits via suppressing neuroinflammation induced by LPS in mice

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disorder in which neuroinflammation plays an important role. FLZ is a novel synthetic derivative of natural squamosamide. Previous studies demonstrated that FLZ had neuroprotective effects on AD models and showed strong anti-inflammatory property in Parkinson's disease models. However, whether the neuroprotective effects of FLZ on AD are associated with its anti-inflammatory property is still not fully elucidated. In this study, we aimed to investigate the ability of FLZ in modulating inflammation. The results showed that FLZ significantly improved memory deficits and alleviated neuronal damage as well as neuronal loss in the hippocampus of mice intracerebroventricular injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Mechanistic studies revealed that the neuroprotective effects of FLZ were due to the suppression of neuroinflammation induced by LPS, as indicated by inactivation of astrocytes and microglia, reduced production of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, and nitric oxide, as well as decreased expression of cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase. The beneficial effects of FLZ on AD were further supported by the finding that FLZ attenuated β-amyloid production through inhibiting β-amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme 1 expression. These results suggested that anti-inflammatory agent could be useful for the treatment of AD.     

Therapeutic strategy at the crossroad of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in age-related neurodegenerative diseases

Aging is the greatest risk factor for neurodegenerative diseases in the CNS, including two major age-related neurodegenerative diseases, Alzheimer’s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Understanding the biology of aging is pivotal in management of patients with neurodegenerative disorders. Genetically programmed aging and oxidative stress-elicited aging are two mechanisms of aging that are likely intertwined, leading to neurodegenerative damages. It is a commonly accepted that neurodegenerative diseases are the consequences of overproduction of oxidative stress or a result of compromised antioxidative mechanisms regardless of their aetiology. In aged brain, microglia increase in number and switch to a more pro-inflammatory state, providing a basis for greater inflammatory responses to inflammogens. Unfortunately, these unfavorable changes are often coupled with compromised capacity to remove oxidative products, allowing mutual perpetuation of inflammation and oxidative damage. This review highlights roles of microglia-mediated neuroinflammation and oxidative stress and association of these two. The possible novel therapeutic approaches are discussed in the context of focusing only on those possessing anti-inflammatory or antioxidative properties.     

Targeting toll-like receptor 4 to modulate neuroinflammation in central nervous system disorders

ABSTRACT

Introduction: Adverse immune activation contributes to many central nervous system (CNS) disorders. All main CNS cell types express toll-like receptor 4 (TLR 4). This receptor is critical for a myriad of immune functions such as cytokine secretion and phagocytic activity of microglia; however, imbalances in TLR 4 activation can contribute to the progression of neurodegenerative diseases.

Areas covered: We considered available evidence implicating TLR 4 activation in the following CNS pathologies: Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, ischemic stroke, traumatic brain injury, multiple sclerosis, multiple systems atrophy, and Huntington’s disease. We reviewed studies reporting effects of TLR 4-specific antagonists and agonists in models of peripheral and CNS diseases from the perspective of possible future use of TLR 4 ligands in CNS disorders.

Expert opinion: TLR 4-specific antagonists could suppress neuroinflammation by reducing overproduction of inflammatory mediators; however, they may interfere with protein clearance mechanisms and myelination. Agonists that specifically activate myeloid differentiation primary-response protein 88 (MyD88)-independent pathway of TLR 4 signaling could facilitate beneficial glial phagocytic activity with limited activity as inducers of proinflammatory mediators. Deciphering the disease stage-specific involvement of TLR 4 in CNS pathologies is crucial for the future clinical development of TLR 4 agonists and antagonists.     

Kaempferol acts through mitogen-activated protein kinases and protein kinase B/AKT to elicit protection in a model of neuroinflammation in BV2 microglial cells

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Kaempferol, a dietary flavonoid and phyto-oestrogen, is known to have anti-inflammatory properties. Microglial activation has been implicated in various neurodegenerative diseases. Anti-inflammatory effects of kaempferol and the underlying mechanisms were investigated by using LPS-stimulated microglial BV2 cells.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Cell viability was measured using MTT and neutral red assays. elisa, Western blot, immunocytochemistry and electrophoretic mobility-shift assay were used to analyse NO, PGE₂, TNF-α and IL-1β production, inducible NOS (iNOS), COX-2 expression and the involvement of signalling pathways such as toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4), MAPK cascades, PKB (AKT) and NF-κB. Accumulation of reaction oxygen species (ROS) was measured by nitroblue tetrazolium and 2′7′-dichlorofluorescein diacetate assay. Matrix metalloproteinase activity was investigated by zymography and immunoblot assay. Phagocytotic activity was assessed by use of latex beads.

KEY RESULTS

Kaempferol significantly attenuated LPS-induced NO, PGE₂, TNF-α, IL-1β and ROS production and phagocytosis in a concentration-dependent manner. Kaempferol suppressed the expression of iNOS, COX-2, MMP-3 and blocked the TLR4 activation. Moreover, kaempferol inhibited LPS-induced NF-κB activation and p38 MAPK, JNK and AKT phosphorylation.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Kaempferol was able to reduce LPS-induced inflammatory mediators through the down-regulation of TLR4, NF-κB, p38 MAPK, JNK and AKT suggesting that kaempferol has therapeutic potential for the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases.     

阿魏酸对小胶质细胞炎性反应的抑制作用

目的考察阿魏酸对脂多糖诱导的小鼠小胶质细胞炎性反应的抑制作用及其机制。方法采用脂多糖(LPS)刺激小胶质细胞(BV-2)活化,研究阿魏酸对炎症反应的抑制作用。采用硝酸还原酶法检测阿魏酸对一氧化氮(nitric oxide,NO)的影响,定量PCR和蛋白印迹分析阿魏酸对诱导型一氧化氮合酶(inducible nitric oxide synthase,i NOS)和环氧合酶-2(COX-2)的影响,定量PCR技术和ELISA分析阿魏酸对炎性因子白细胞介素-1β(interleukin-1β,IL-1β)、白细胞介素-6(interleukin-6,IL-6)、肿瘤坏死因子-α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)的影响,进而检测阿魏酸对促分裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinases,MAPK)信号通路的影响。结果 1.25~20μmol·L-1的阿魏酸对细胞活性无明显影响。阿魏酸浓度依赖性降低NO的浓度,可以明显抑制i NOS、COX-2的基因和蛋白表达,明显抑制IL-1β、IL-6、TNF-α的表达,提前给予阿魏酸共同孵育对LPS引起的ERK信号通路的磷酸化有抑制作用。结论阿魏酸具有抑制小胶质细胞活化,抑制神经性炎症的作用,其机制可能是阿魏酸通过ERK信号通路发挥对炎性分子的抑制作用。     

Z-ligustilide attenuates lipopolysaccharide-induced proinflammatory response via inhibiting NF-KB pathway in primary rat microglia

Aim:

To investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of Z-ligustilide (LIG) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated primary rat microglia.

Methods:

Microglia were pretreated with LIG 1 h prior to stimulation with LPS (1 μg/mL). After 24 h, cell viability was tested with MTT, nitric oxide (NO) production was assayed with Griess reagent, and the content of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and monocyte chemoattractant protein (MCP-1) was measured with ELISA. Protein expression of the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) p65 subunit, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) was detected with immunocytochemistry 1 h or 24 h after LPS treatment.

Results:

LIG showed a concentration-dependent anti-inflammatory effect in LPS-activated microglia, without causing cytotoxicity. Pretreatment with LIG at 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 μmol/L decreased LPS-induced NO production to 75.9%, 54.4%, 43.1%, and 47.6% (P<0.05 or P< 0.01), TNF-α content to 86.2%, 68.3%, 40.1%, and 39.9% (P<0.01, with the exception of 86.2% for 2.5 μmol/L LIG), IL-1β content to 31.5%, 27.7%, 0.6%, and 0% (P<0.01), and MCP-1 content to 84.4%, 50.3%, 45.1%, and 42.2% (P<0.05 or P<0.01), respectively, compared with LPS treatment alone. LIG (10 μmol/L) significantly inhibited LPS-stimulated immunoreactivity of activated NF-κB, COX-2, and iNOS (P<0.01 vs LPS group).

Conclusion:

LIG exerted a potent anti-inflammatory effect on microglia through inhibition of NF-κB pathway. The data provide direct evidence of the neuroprotective effects of LIG and the potential application of LIG for the treatment of the neuroinflammatory diseases characterized by excessive microglial activation.     

华蟾素通过抑制脊髓CCL2/CCR2途径及小胶质细胞的活化缓解骨癌痛

华蟾素具有抗炎镇痛的作用,在治疗骨癌痛方面具有重要价值,但其机制尚不清楚。本实验将4×10⁵个Walker-256细胞接种于SD大鼠左后肢,构建乳腺癌骨转移模型。实验方案经三峡大学医学院医学实验动物伦理委员会审议同意并批准。将大鼠随机分成假手术组、模型组、华蟾素组、吗啡组、生理盐水组、米诺环素组、小胶质细胞抑制剂(RS102895)组和联合用药(华蟾素+米诺环素)组。华蟾素组(5 mL·kg^-1)、吗啡组(8 mg·kg^-1)及联合用药组(含华蟾素5 mL·kg^-1)于造模第9天开始连续静脉注射给药至21天;生理盐水组、米诺环素组(2.5μg·μL-1, 20μL)、RS102895组(1.5μg·μL-1, 20μL)、联合用药组(含米诺环素2.5μg·μL-1, 20μL)在造模第12天开始连续鞘内插管给药至21天,然后处理大鼠。利用苏木精-伊红(H&E)染色法检测大鼠左后肢骨质破坏情况;通过行为学指标观察大鼠造模前、造模第2、5、7、9、12、14、17和20天痛阈值变化;通过免疫荧光...     

Carbon monoxide and the CNS: challenges and achievements

Haem oxygenase (HO) and its product carbon monoxide (CO) are associated with cytoprotection and maintenance of homeostasis in several different organs and tissues. This review focuses upon the role of exogenous and endogenous CO (via HO activity and expression) in various CNS pathologies, based upon data from experimental models, as well as from some clinical data on human patients. The pathophysiological conditions reviewed are cerebral ischaemia, chronic neurodegenerative diseases (Alzheimer''s and Parkinson''s diseases), multiple sclerosis and pain. Among these pathophysiological conditions, a variety of cellular mechanisms and processes are considered, namely cytoprotection, cell death, inflammation, cell metabolism, cellular redox responses and vasomodulation, as well as the different targeted neural cells. Finally, novel potential methods and strategies for delivering exogenous CO as a drug are discussed, particularly approaches based upon CO-releasing molecules, their limitations and challenges. The diagnostic and prognostic value of HO expression in clinical use for brain pathologies is also addressed.

Linked Articles

This article is part of a themed section on Pharmacology of the Gasotransmitters. To view the other articles in this section visit http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/bph.2015.172.issue-6     

Emodin attenuates acute rejection of liver allografts by inhibiting hepatocellular apoptosis and modulating the Th1/Th2 balance in rats

1. In the present study, we investigated the immunosuppressive effects and mechanisms of action of emodin on acute graft rejection following liver transplantation in a rat model of orthotopic liver transplantation. 2. Rats were divided into three groups: Group A, syngenic control (Brown Norway‐to‐Brown Norway); Group B, acute rejection group (Lewis‐to‐Brown Norway); and Group C, emodin‐treated group (Lewis‐to‐Brown Norway treated with 50 mg/kg emodin, 50 mg/kg.d, injected intraperitoneally once a day from days 1 to 5 posttransplantation). The survival time of the recipients in each group was recorded. Histopathological changes in the liver, hepatocellular apoptosis, serum concentrations of interleukin (IL)‐2, interferon (IFN)‐γ and IL‐4 and their expression in liver tissue were determined. 3. Emodin treatment prolonged liver allograft survival time from 10.9 days in Group B to 25.6 days in Group C. The rejection activity index (calculated according to the Banff Schema) in Groups A, B and C was 1.29 ± 0.47, 7.58 ± 0.85 and 4.72 ± 0.79, respectively (P < 0.01 for Groups A and B vs Group C), whereas the apoptosis index in the three groups was 15.51 ± 1.47, 39.50 ± 1.65 and 16.72 ± 1.73, respectively (P < 0.01 for Groups A and C vs Group B). Serum levels of IL‐2 and IFN‐γ were higher, whereas levels of IL‐4 were lower, in the acute rejection group (Group B) than in the emodin‐treated group (Group C; P < 0.05). Changes in the expression of these cytokines in transplanted liver tissue were consistent with changes in serum concentrations. 4. In conclusion, emodin effectively suppresses acute graft rejection in vivo to prolong the survival of recipient rats. The mechanism underlying this effect may be associated with the prevention of hepatocyte apoptosis and with a changing in the balance of Th1/Th2 cytokines towards Th2.     

补阳还五汤通过AMPK/mTOR/ULK1信号通路调控自噬减轻大鼠脑缺血/再灌注损伤

目的探讨补阳还五汤抗大鼠脑缺血/再灌注损伤的AMPK/mTOR/ULK1自噬信号通路机制。方法用改良线栓法建造大鼠左侧脑缺血模型,各组大鼠每24 h给药1次,共3次。再灌注72 h后观察大鼠神经损伤情况和脑梗死体积改变;尼氏染色法和TUNEL染色法观察神经细胞形态、数量以及凋亡情况;Western blot检测自噬蛋白和AMPK/mTOR/ULK1自噬信号通路相关蛋白表达情况。结果补阳还五汤改善大鼠神经功能缺陷,减少脑梗死体积和神经细胞凋亡,减轻脑组织病理损伤;抑制AMPK磷酸化活化,解除AMPK对下游mTOR和ULK1的抑制,促进二者磷酸化激活,抑制细胞自噬。AMPK激动剂Metformin提高细胞自噬水平,同时逆转了补阳还五汤抗大鼠脑缺血/再灌注损伤作用。结论补阳还五汤介导AMPK/mTOR/ULK1自噬信号通路对脑缺血/再灌注损伤大鼠发挥神经保护作用。     

Wogonin attenuates endotoxin‐induced prostaglandin E2 and nitric oxide production via Src‐ERK1/2‐NFκB pathway in BV‐2 microglial cells

Microglia are the major component of intrinsic brain immune system in neuroinflammation. Although wogonin expresses anti‐inflammatory function in microglia, little is known about the molecular mechanisms of the protective effect of wogonin against microglia activation. The aim of this study was to evaluate how wogonin exerts its anti‐inflammatory function in BV2 microglial cells after LPS/INFγ administration. Wogonin not only inhibited LPS/ INFγ‐induced PGE2 and NO production without affecting cell viability but also exhibited parallel inhibition on LPS/INFγ‐induced expression of iNOS and COX‐2 in the same concentration range. While LPS/INFγ‐induced expression of P‐p65 and P‐IκB was inhibited by wogonin — only weak inhibition on P‐p38 and P‐JNK were observed, whereas it significantly attenuated the P‐ERK1/2 and its upstream activators P‐MEK1/2 and P‐Src in a parallel concentration‐dependent manner. These results indicated that the blockade of PGE2 and NO production by wogonin in LPS/INFγ‐stimulated BV2 cells is attributed mainly to interference in the Src‐MEK1/2‐ERK1/2‐NFκB‐signaling pathway. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Environ Toxicol 29: 1162–1170, 2014.     

Therapeutic inhibition of CXCR2 by Reparixin attenuates acute lung injury in mice

Background and purpose:

Acute lung injury (ALI) remains a major challenge in critical care medicine. Both neutrophils and chemokines have been proposed as key components in the development of ALI. The main chemokine receptor on neutrophils is CXCR2, which regulates neutrophil recruitment and vascular permeability, but no small molecule CXCR2 inhibitor has been demonstrated to be effective in ALI or animal models of ALI. To investigate the functional relevance of the CXCR2 inhibitor Reparixin in vivo, we determined its effects in two models of ALI, induced by either lipopolysaccharide (LPS) inhalation or acid instillation.

Experimental approach:

In two ALI models in mice, we measured vascular permeability by Evans blue and evaluated neutrophil recruitment into the lung vasculature, interstitium and airspace by flow cytometry.

Key results:

Pharmacological inhibition of CXCR2 by Reparixin reduced CXCL1-induced leukocyte arrest in the microcirculation of the cremaster muscle, but did not influence arrest in response to leukotriene B₄ (LTB₄) demonstrating specificity. Reparixin (15 μg g⁻¹) reduced neutrophil recruitment in the lung by approximately 50% in a model of LPS-induced ALI. A higher dose did not provide additional reduction of neutrophil recruitment. This dose also reduced accumulation of neutrophils in the interstitial compartment and vascular permeability in LPS-induced ALI. Furthermore, both prophylactic and therapeutic application of Reparixin improved gas exchange, and reduced neutrophil recruitment and vascular permeability in a clinically relevant model of acid-induced ALI.

Conclusions and implications:

Reparixin, a non-competitive allosteric CXCR2 inhibitor attenuates ALI by reducing neutrophil recruitment and vascular permeability.     

Biomedical Perspectives of Acute and Chronic Neurological and Neuropsychiatric Sequelae of COVID-19

The incidence of infections from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the etiologic agent for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has dramatically escalated following the initial outbreak in China, in late 2019, resulting in a global pandemic with millions of deaths. Although the majority of infected patients survive, and the rapid advent and deployment of vaccines have afforded increased immunity against SARS-CoV-2, long-term sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection have become increasingly recognized. These include, but are not limited to, chronic pulmonary disease, cardiovascular disorders, and proinflammatory-associated neurological dysfunction that may lead to psychological and neurocognitive impairment. A major component of cognitive dysfunction is operationally categorized as “brain fog” which comprises difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, confusion, depression, and fatigue. Multiple parameters associated with long-term neuropsychiatric sequelae of SARS-CoV-2 infection have been detailed in clinical studies. Empirically elucidated mechanisms associated with the neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19 are by nature complex, but broad-based working models have focused on mitochondrial dysregulation, leading to systemic reductions of metabolic activity and cellular bioenergetics within the CNS structures. Multiple factors underlying the expression of brain fog may facilitate future pathogenic insults, leading to repetitive cycles of viral and bacterial propagation. Interestingly, diverse neurocognitive sequelae associated with COVID-19 are not dissimilar from those observed in other historical pandemics, thereby providing a broad and integrative perspective on potential common mechanisms of CNS dysfunction subsequent to viral infection. Poor mental health status may be reciprocally linked to compromised immune processes and enhanced susceptibility to infection by diverse pathogens. By extrapolation, we contend that COVID-19 may potentiate the severity of neurological/neurocognitive deficits in patients afflicted by well-studied neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer''s disease and Parkinson’s disease. Accordingly, the prevention, diagnosis, and management of sustained neuropsychiatric manifestations of COVID-19 are pivotal health care directives and provide a compelling rationale for careful monitoring of infected patients, as early mitigation efforts may reduce short- and long-term complications.     

UBXN2A regulates nicotinic receptor degradation by modulating the E3 ligase activity of CHIP

Neuronal nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) containing the α3 subunit are known for their prominent role in normal ganglionic transmission while their involvement in the mechanisms underlying nicotine addiction and smoking-related disease has been emerging only in recent years. The amount of information available on the maturation and trafficking of α3-containing nAChRs is limited. We previously showed that UBXN2A is a p97 adaptor protein that facilitates the maturation and trafficking of α3-containing nAChRs. Further investigation of the mechanisms of UBXN2A actions revealed that the protein interacts with CHIP (carboxyl terminus of Hsc70 interacting protein), whose ubiquitin E3 ligase activity regulates the degradation of several disease-related proteins. We show that CHIP displays E3 ligase activity toward the α3 nAChR subunit and contributes to its ubiquitination and subsequent degradation. UBXN2A interferes with CHIP-mediated ubiquitination of α3 and protects the nicotinic receptor subunit from endoplasmic reticulum associated degradation (ERAD). UBXN2A also cross-talks with VCP/p97 and HSC70/HSP70 proteins in a complex where α3 is likely to be targeted by CHIP. Overall,we identify CHIP as an E3 ligase for α3 and UBXN2A as a protein that may efficiently regulate the stability of CHIP’s client substrates.