Mass screening for breast cancer

A CONTROVERSIAL SUBJECT: Several large randomised studies have demonstrated a reduction in mortality due to breast cancer of around 30% in women aged over 50, with the development of systematic mammography. There are data also suggesting an identical benefit in women aged 40 to 49, when screening is intensified. A recent meta-analysis has contradicted the results of randomised studies on screening, but this study is clearly debatable. THE SITUATION IN FRANCE: No randomised study has been organised. A national program is aimed at screening 7 400 000 women aged 50 to 74. THE KEY TO SUCCESS: The active participation of women, health professionals and public authorities is the fundamental condition for a well-organised mass screening.     

Women's perceptions of breast cancer screening. Spanish screening programme survey

ObjectivesParticipants in breast cancer screening programmes may benefit from early detection but may also be exposed to the risks of overdiagnosis and false positives. We surveyed a sample of Spanish women to assess knowledge, information sources, attitudes and psychosocial impact.Materials and methodsA total of 434 breast cancer screening programme participants aged 45–69 years were administered questionnaires regarding knowledge, information sources, attitudes and psychosocial impact. Scores of 5 or more (out of 10) and 12 or less (out of 24) were established as indicating adequate knowledge and a positive attitude, respectively. Psychosocial impact was measured using the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale and the Cancer Worry Scale.ResultsOnly 42 women (9.7%) had adequate knowledge. The mean (SD) knowledge score was 2.97 (1.16). Better educated women and women without previous false positives had higher scores. The main sources of information were television, press, Andalusian Health Service documentation and family and friends. Most participants (99.1%) had a positive attitude, with a mean (SD) score of 3.21 (2.66). Mean (SD) scores for anxiety, depression and cancer worry were 1.86 (3.26), 0.72 (1.99) and 9.4 (3.04), respectively.ConclusionWomen have a very positive attitude to breast cancer screening, but are poorly informed and use television as their main information source. They experience no negative psychosocial impact from participation in such programmes.     

'Good prognosis tumours' in breast cancer screening.

The Forrest Report led to the introduction of the breast screening programme with the aim of reducing mortality from breast cancer. In 1989 a breast screening programme was introduced to the South Bucks District and now two cycles have been completed. The findings are of a high yield of good prognosis tumours 71% and 72%, respectively. These encouraging figures are reflected in a high response rate and with a fall in the incidence of non-screen-detected tumours.     

Cost-effectiveness of breast cancer screening

This review reports progress in cost-effectiveness studies in relation to breast cancer screening, and identifies a number of problems which have not been fully solved. One of these is the use of data from different countries. Caution is required when interpreting the results in such circumstances as there are clinical and socio-economic variations which are not well understood. Care must be taken when extrapolating from a trial to a national screening programme because of the additional costs of implementing a national screening programme (e.g. extra qualified staff are required) and there are the differences generated when replicating a research based trial in the form of a service.Attention is drawn to the reliance of cost-effectiveness analysis on clinical results, especially in the form of years of life saved, which in principle depend on lifetime follow up, though this is not yet available from trials of breast cancer screening. The use of measures of morbidity as well as mortality is supported but the variability of estimates of these weights is acknowledged. This is an area for further research, especially because of the recognition of potentially significant psychological aspects in breast cancer screening and treatment. A further point is that any national screening programme does not take place in isolation and the indirect consequence on the demand side are likely in themselves to have resource implications. An example of this is the stimulus to the demand for screening by those outside the proposed screening population.     

Feasibility of magnetic marker localisation for non-palpable breast cancer

ObjectivesAccurate tumour localisation is essential for breast-conserving surgery of non-palpable tumours. Current localisation technologies are associated with disadvantages such as logistical challenges and migration issues (wire guided localisation) or legislative complexities and high administrative burden (radioactive localisation). We present MAgnetic MArker LOCalisation (MaMaLoc), a novel technology that aims to overcome these disadvantages using a magnetic marker and a magnetic detection probe. This feasibility study reports on the first experience with this new technology for breast cancer localisation.Materials and methodsFifteen patients with unifocal, non-palpable breast cancer were recruited. They received concurrent placement of the magnetic marker in addition to a radioactive iodine seed, which is standard of care in our clinic. In a subset of five patients, migration of the magnetic marker was studied. During surgery, a magnetic probe and gammaprobe were alternately used to localise the markers and guide surgery. The primary outcome parameter was successful transcutaneous identification of the magnetic marker. Additionally, data on radiologist and surgeon satisfaction were collected.ResultsMagnetic marker placement was successful in all cases. Radiologists could easily adapt to the technology in the clinical workflow. Migration of the magnetic marker was negligible. The primary endpoint of the study was met with an identification rate of 100%. Both radiologists and surgeons reflected that the technology was intuitive to use and that it was comparable to radioactive iodine seed localisation.ConclusionMagnetic marker localisation for non-palpable breast cancer is feasible and safe, and may be a viable non-radioactive alternative to current localisation technologies.     

An evaluation of mass screening for breast cancer

In Tokushima Prefecture, Japan, 41,922 women (26,669 in actual number) were subjected to mass screening with physical examination from 1970–1977. In 42 including 10 of so-called “interval cancer”, breast cancer was detected. Those with breast cancer detected by mass screening were in the earlier stage of the discase as compared to those diagnosed through regular medical care at our out-patient clinic during the same period. Procedures such as inspection and palpation are readily carried out and early occurrences of breast cancer can be detected.     

Implications of suspicious findings in breast cancer screening.

Breast cancer screening, performed on asymptomatic women over 35 years of age, has identified 32 breast cancers in 30 of 4,500 women screened. Screening included a physical examination by trained technologists, thermography, and xeromammography. This represents 26 percent of the biopsies performed (116). Results of xerommammography were suspicious in 24 cases (80 percent), and results of physical examination were suspicious in 11 (37 percent). Only six were suspicious by both methods, with one other having changes that were considered benign. Fourteen (44 percent) were microinvasive or noninvasive. Only two (6 percent) had axillary metastases. Breast cancer detected by screening is in its "early" stages and is usually well localized. Operative management, including removal of the entire breast, has a significant potential for cure. Thirty patients with changes considered suspicious have not yet had biopsies. Improved overall survival depends on appropriate management of all patients screened.     

广州市乳腺癌机会性筛查与团体性筛查结果的比较

目的比较广州市地区机会性筛查与团体性筛查的人群分布,探索影响检查结果阳性的因素。方法机会性筛查的研究对象选取2015年1月~2015年12月来中山大学孙逸仙纪念医院乳腺肿瘤中心就诊的病人,且既往未诊断过乳腺疾病。团体性筛查的研究对象选取同年1月~12月参加我院乳腺肿瘤医学部诊断科开展的广州市女职工(含退休)乳腺癌筛查项目的女性。采用调查问卷的形式,对研究对象采用自填式问卷的方式进行调查。比较两组筛查人群的基本特征,探索影响检查结果阳性的因素。结果研究显示机会性筛查组年龄较团体性筛查组小,初潮年龄较大,哺乳时间较长,初产年龄较年轻,流产次数较多,生育次数也较多。机会性筛查组影像学检查阳性率、活检率均高于团体性筛查组。影响筛查检查阳性结果的独立危险因素是机会性筛查的方式和初潮年龄大于12岁。团体性筛查组确诊的乳腺癌中早期的比例更高。结论团体性筛查组人群分布特征与机会性筛查组不同,检查结果阳性率更高,活检率低于机会性筛查组,但是活检阳性率较高。     

Mammography and breast cancer screening

Breast radiography should be performed only with film-screen mammography or xeromammography. At least two views of each breast should be obtained, and for film-screen mammography, at least one of these should be the oblique view. Quality assurance is becoming a significant concern in breast cancer screening. The ACR Mammography Accreditation Program takes into account the qualifications of the personnel, the performance of the x-ray equipment, and a peer review of the final product: the diagnostic image. The mammographic signs of malignancy can be divided into primary, secondary, and indirect. The accuracy of mammography depends on several factors, but the greatest limitation is the density of the breast tissue. Very dense tissue makes detection of breast cancer difficult, and a negative mammogram should never deter one from a biopsy of a clinically suspect mass. New consensus guidelines for breast cancer screening were developed to bring uniformity to the recommendations of the American Cancer Society, the National Cancer Institute, and various professional medical societies. These new guidelines reflect the encouraging results from recent clinical trials, as well as some discouraging reports on breast self-examination and the baseline mammogram. The underutilization of screening mammography is a problem of significant concern to both private and public health agencies. Barriers to mammographic screening include lack of awareness of the benefits of screening, physicians' misconceptions about patient compliance, concerns about radiation risk and overdiagnosis, fear of mastectomy, a perception that a mammogram involves great discomfort, and relatively high cost. Nationwide educational programs are under way to counter misconceptions about mammography, and various strategies are evolving to overcome the other barriers. Sonography is a useful adjunct to mammography for cyst-solid differentiation, but mammography is the only imaging modality effective for the early detection of breast cancer.     

乳腺高频钼靶X线联合乳管镜筛查乳腺癌

目的 了解广东省佛山市顺德区城市妇女乳腺高频钼靶X线联合乳管镜筛查乳腺癌的情况.方法 2011年3月-2013年1月采用临床乳腺检查初筛,以及乳腺高频钼靶X线检查联合选择性乳管镜检查,对广东省佛山市顺德区3 600例40岁以上妇女进行了乳腺癌筛查.结果 3 600例妇女共检出乳腺癌10例,检出率为278/10万(10/3600).乳腺临床检查中发现乳腺异常1 313例、乳腺肿块142例、乳头溢液行乳管镜检查100例;乳腺高频钼靶X线检查4级及以上者72例,总共占筛查人群的45.19％(1 627/3 600).结论 通过乳管镜联合乳腺高频钼靶X线片在正常人群中进行乳腺癌筛查,有助于发现早期乳腺癌,为临床早期治疗提供依据.     

Feasibility of sigmoidoscopic screening for colorectal cancer in the Hunter Region

The success of a cancer detection programme depends on the co-operation of the target population. The aim of this study was to identify factors which might influence those at average and at higher risk of developing colorectal cancer to undergo a sigmoidoscopic screening test if offered. This was addressed by means of a household survey of individuals aged 40 years and over. Overall consent to undergo screening approximated 45%. There was a significant relationship between agreement to sigmoidoscopy and each of the following: age, marital status, educational level attained, and a previous episode of rectal bleeding. Individuals who had undergone sigmoidoscopy in the past were less willing to have the test performed again. Although individuals with a family history of bowel cancer in first-degree relatives perceived themselves as being more likely to develop colorectal cancer, this had no apparent impact on their willingness to have the test. The implications of these findings for community education programmes directed at colorectal cancer are discussed.     

Feasibility of tailored follow-up for patients with early breast cancer

As the number of breast cancer survivors increases, this study prospectively examined whether tailored follow-up with differentiated number of visits per risk group, based on a prognostic index for local recurrence, is feasible and acceptable for patients and professionals.Between March 2007 and March 2010, 180 breast cancer patients (pT1-2N0-2cM0) were included. Primary endpoint was feasibility of tailored follow-up, based on the number of follow-up visits, patient satisfaction, anxiety and attitude towards follow-up. Secondary endpoints were reasons for visits, incidence, time to detection of local recurrences and the use of alternative care.In the second and third year of follow-up, the results show a 22% reduction in visits per patient in the low-risk group compared to the intermediate-risk group; 2.8 versus 3.6 visits. The majority of interval visits in both groups was initiated by the professional. No significant differences were found in attitude towards follow-up, patient satisfaction, anxiety and depression, alternative health care use or local recurrences between the risk groups.In conclusion, implementation of a tailored follow-up programme with decreased number of visits for low-risk patients is feasible and acceptable to patients. Appointing one coordinating professional, possibly a nurse practitioner, could further reduce the number of follow-up visits.     

Predictors of breast cancer in women recalled following screening.

BACKGROUND: Established risk factors are associated with between 25 and 56% of breast cancer cases, but the relative importance and relevance to different age groups is unclear. METHODS: This case-control study examines established risk factors in 298 women with breast cancer and 1926 women without breast cancer aged 40-87 who were recalled for assessment following routine mammography. RESULTS: The cancer group were significantly older than the non-cancer group (F1,222 = 107.6; P < 0.0001). Postmenopausal obesity increased the odds of developing breast cancer (OR: 2.35; CI: 1.33-4.16). The breast cancer group were more likely to have used oral contraceptives (OR: 1.50; CI: 1.09-2.05), and women who used contraceptives for more than 10 years in total were at the highest risk (OR: 1.73; CI: 1.13-2.65). Daily consumption of alcohol was also associated with increased risk of developing breast cancer (OR: 1.62; CI: 1.13-2.33). Reproductive factors and a family history of breast cancer did not affect the odds of developing breast cancer and the reasons for these findings are explored. CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that the effects of weight reduction in reducing postmenopausal breast cancer risk should be assessed.     

Mobile unit for use in mass screening for breast cancer

Since 1977, mass screening for breast cancer has been carried out in Miyagi prefecture, Japan. The main activities involve itinerant screening in the communities and group screening at the workplaces. The first step in this screening is the physical examination; the second step, for women with suspicious findings, is examination by mammography and ultrasonography, in a specially equipped mobile unit. The number of subjects screened over a seven-year period ending in March, 1984, was 94.953. Mammography was performed on 4,485 subjects (4.7 per cent) Breast cancer was detected in 116 subjects (0.12 per cent). Since 1980, 2,292 high risk subjects have undergone mammography as the first step screening. The detection rate (0.35 per cent) for this group was higher than for the general subjects examined. Therefore, mammography performed in a mobile unit is a suitable approach for the detecting and diagnosing of breast cancer.     

Mobile unit for use in mass screening for breast cancer

Since 1977, mass screening for breast cancer has been carried out in Miyagi prefecture, Japan. The main activities involve itinerant screening in the communities and group screening at the workplaces. The first step in this screening is the physical examination; the second step, for women with suspicious findings, is examination by mammography and ultrasonography, in a specially equipped mobile unit. The number of subjects screened over a seven-year period ending in March, 1984, was 94,953. Mammography was performed on 4,485 subjects (4.7 per cent) Breast cancer was detected in 116 subjects (0.12 per cent). Since 1980, 2,292 high risk subjects have undergone mammography as the first step screening. The detection rate (0.35 per cent) for this group was higher than for the general subjects examined. Therefore, mammography performed in a mobile unit is a suitable approach for the detecting and diagnosing of breast cancer.     

Will screening for breast cancer reduce mortality? Evidence from the first year of screening in Avon.

In the first year of screening in Avon, 93 malignant lesions were detected of which one-half were impalpable. Of the impalpable lesions, one-half were in situ or showed areas of microinvasion only. One-fifth of the malignant lesions were invasive tumours of special histological type which are known to carry a good prognosis even when not detected by screening. One-quarter of the lesions had clinical or pathological features which would be expected to confer a poor prognosis. Only 16 invasive ductal carcinomas measuring 1 cm or less in diameter were detected--a small proportion of the total number of malignant lesions. Although these early figures suggest that the effect of screening on mortality from breast cancer may be small, continued high-quality screening and careful detailed analysis are essential to determine the effect of screening on the mortality from breast cancer and the effect on the population as a whole.