Effects of different neurotrophic factors on the survival of retinal ganglion cells after a complete intraorbital nerve crush injury: A quantitative in vivo study

We examined in adult Sprague Dawley rats the loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) induced by complete intraorbital optic nerve crush (IONC) as well as the effects of several neurotrophic factors to prevent IONC-induced RGC loss. Completeness of the IONC lesion was assessed by investigating the orthograde and retrograde transport of neuronal tracers applied to the origin and termination of the retinotectal pathway. RGC survival after IONC alone or combined with intraocular injection of the neurotrophic factors NT-4, BDNF or CNTF was quantified at survival intervals ranging from 5 to 12 days post-lesion (dpl) by identifying RGCs that had been pre-labelled with fluorogold (FG). RGC loss first appeared at 7 dpl and by 12 dpl only 32% of the RGC population remained in the retina. Intraocular administration of NT-4, BDNF or CNTF resulted in almost a complete protection against IONC-induced RGC loss by 7 dpl, and the protection remained significant by 12 dpl only for NT-4 and BDNF. We have analyzed these results taking into account our previous studies on the loss of RGCs induced by intraorbital optic nerve transection (IONT) and concluded that RGC loss induced by IONC is slower and less severe than that following IONT. Moreover, as for IONT-induced RGC loss, IONC-induced RGC loss may also be prevented with administration of NT-4, BDNF or CNTF, though for NT-4 and CNTF their neuroprotective effects differ depending on the injury type. Overall this data underscore the importance of the type of ON injury on the pattern of RGC degeneration as well as in their response to neuroprotective treatments.     

大鼠视神经挫伤视网膜形态功能变化的动态研究

目的观察视神经夹挫伤后视网膜形态学和视功能动态变化,为视功能评价和视神经保护研究提供依据。方法大鼠视神经夹挫伤后1d、3d、5d7、d、9d、2周4、周8、周1、2周,光镜观察视网膜神经节细胞(RGC)改变,闪光视觉诱发电位(F-VEP)检测视功能状况。结果视神经部分损伤后3d到1周内视网膜神经节细胞快速减少,2周以后缓慢减少,4周几乎无明显变化;视神经损伤1d,F-VEP波形变得低而宽,前2周呈进行性下降期,4周后变化平稳,并显示恢复迹象。结论神经节细胞继发性损伤是视功能进行性下降的重要原因,一定数量存活的视网膜节细胞是视功能恢复的基础;神经损伤变化和视功能变化与时间具有一定的相关性,这些对于正确评价视功能状况和预后有极重要的意义。     

Heparan sulfate regulates intraretinal axon pathfinding by retinal ganglion cells

PURPOSE. Heparan sulfate (HS) is abundantly expressed in the developing neural retina; however, its role in the intraretinal axon guidance of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) remains unclear. In this study, the authors examined whether HS was essential for the axon guidance of RGCs toward the optic nerve head. METHODS. The authors conditionally ablated the gene encoding the exostosin-1 (Ext1) enzyme, using the dickkopf homolog 3 (Dkk3)-Cre transgene, which disrupted HS expression in the mouse retina during directed pathfinding by RGC axons toward the optic nerve head. In situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, DiI tracing, binding assay, and retinal explant assays were performed to evaluate the phenotypes of the mutants and the roles of HS in intraretinal axon guidance. RESULTS. Despite no gross abnormality in RGC distribution, the mutant RGC axons exhibited severe intraretinal guidance errors, including optic nerve hypoplasia, ectopic axon penetration through the full thickness of the neural retina and into the subretinal space, and disturbance of the centrifugal projection of RGC axons toward the optic nerve head. These abnormal phenotypes shared similarities with the RGC axon misguidance caused by mutations of genes encoding Netrin-1 and Slit-1/2. Explant assays revealed that the mutant RGCs exhibited disturbed Netrin-1-dependent axon outgrowth and Slit-2-dependent repulsion. CONCLUSIONS. The present study demonstrated that RGC axon projection toward the optic nerve head requires the expression of HS in the neural retina, suggesting that HS in the retina functions as an essential modulator of Netrin-1 and Slit-mediated intraretinal RGC axon guidance.     

Understanding glaucomatous damage: anatomical and functional data from ocular hypertensive rodent retinas

Glaucoma, the second most common cause of blindness, is characterized by a progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells and their axons, with a concomitant loss of the visual field. Although the exact pathogenesis of glaucoma is not completely understood, a critical risk factor is the elevation, above normal values, of the intraocular pressure. Consequently, deciphering the anatomical and functional changes occurring in the rodent retina as a result of ocular hypertension has potential value, as it may help elucidate the pathology of retinal ganglion cell degeneration induced by glaucoma in humans. This paper predominantly reviews the cumulative information from our laboratory’s previous, recent and ongoing studies, and discusses the deleterious anatomical and functional effects of ocular hypertension on retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in adult rodents. In adult rats and mice, perilimbar and episcleral vein photocauterization induces ocular hypertension, which in turn results in devastating damage of the RGC population. In wide triangular sectors, preferentially located in the dorsal retina, RGCs lose their retrograde axonal transport, first by a functional impairment and after by mechanical causes. This axonal damage affects up to 80% of the RGC population, and eventually causes their death, with somal and intra-retinal axonal degeneration that resembles that observed after optic nerve crush. Importantly, while ocular hypertension affects the RGC population, it spares non-RGC neurons located in the ganglion cell layer of the retina. In addition, functional and morphological studies show permanent alterations of the inner and outer retinal layers, indicating that further to a crush-like injury of axon bundles in the optic nerve head there may by additional insults to the retina, perhaps of ischemic nature.     

地塞米松对兔视神经钳夹伤后视网膜神经节细胞存活及Nogo-A表达的影响

目的观察地塞米松对家兔视神经钳夹伤后视网膜神经节细胞(retinal ganglion cell,RGC)存活的影响及损伤视神经、视网膜Nogo-A表达的变化。方法采用兔球后视神经钳夹伤模型,健康成年家兔分为正常对照组、损伤组、治疗组。分别于损伤后3d、7d、14d处死动物,观察单位面积RGC存活数量及损伤后Nogo-A在视神经、视网膜的表达变化。结果视神经损伤后,治疗组RGC的存活数高于损伤组及对照组(P<0.01)。对照组、损伤组损伤后3d、7d、14d视神经、视网膜Nogo-A表达增强,至损伤后7d达高峰;治疗组视神经、视网膜表达亦增强,各时间点均弱于损伤组、对照组,差异有显著统计学意义(P<0·01)。结论视神经损伤后,地塞米松能够增加RGC的存活数量,能够下调No-go-A的表达,这可能是地塞米松治疗作用机制之一。     

依托咪酯通过PKC/NF-κB信号通路增加成年大鼠视神经损伤后RGC存活

目的　探讨依托咪酯对成年大鼠视神经损伤后视网膜神经节细胞（ｒｅｔｉｎａｌｇａｎｇｌｉｏｎｃｅｌｌ,ＲＧＣ）的保护作用及其机制。方法　应用大鼠视神经眶内段切断模型,荧光金逆行标记存活ＲＧＣ;腹腔注射依托咪酯或玻璃体内注射蛋白激酶Ｃ（ｐｒｏｔｅｉｎｋｉ-ｎａｓｅＣ,ＰＫＣ）抑制剂Ｇ６９７６干预,应用ＰｅｐＴａｇ非同位素ＰＫＣ检测试剂盒检测视网膜ＰＫＣ活性,应用免疫印迹法分析视网膜核转录因子-κＢ（ｎｕｃｌｅａｒｆａｃｔｏｒｋａｐｐａＢ,ＮＦ-κＢ）水平。结果　依托咪酯显著增加大鼠视神经损伤后７ｄＲＧＣ存活数量（Ｐ＜０．０５）,而且显著降低视网膜ＰＫＣ活性和ＮＦ-κＢ水平（均为Ｐ＜０．０５）。Ｇ６９７６同样显著增加大鼠视神经损伤后７ｄＲＧＣ存活数量（Ｐ＜０．０５）,联合应用依托咪酯和Ｇ６９７６,其存活ＲＧＣ数量与单纯应用依托咪酯差异无统计学意义（Ｐ＞０．０５）;Ｇ６９７６显著降低视网膜ＮＦ-κＢ水平（Ｐ＜０．０５）。结论　依托咪酯可显著增加大鼠视神经损伤后ＲＧＣ存活数量,其机制可能与抑制ＰＫＣ／ＮＦ-κＢ信号通路有关。     

Down-regulation of glutamate-induced conductances of retinal horizontal cells after ganglion cell axotomy

After a complete optic nerve section (ONS), retinal neurons may display retrograde transneuronal modifications in synaptic structure and function related to the retinal disconnection from the brain. The molecular and physiological basis of these changes is not yet fully understood. Immunoreactivity for calbindin was used to specifically immunolabel the horizontal cells (HC) in order to study any morphologic changes in the outer plexiform layer (OPL) after axotomy-induced degeneration of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in the rabbit retina. Glutamate-gated conductance expressed by HC enzymatically dissociated from the rabbit retina were studied at 12 and 21 days after ONS by using the whole-cell voltage-clamp technique. The amplitudes of glutamate-induced currents on HC were significantly reduced 3 weeks after axotomy. However, no morphologic changes within the OPL were detected coincident with the progressive loss of glutamatergic responses; similarly, HC dissociated from the axotomized retinal tissue did not differ in morphology or appearance from control retinas. The main finding in this study is that the HC experiment a retrograde transneuronal down-regulation of their ionotropic glutamate-induced conductance following axotomy-induced degeneration of RGC.     

Lack of neuroprotection against experimental glaucoma in c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3 knockout mice

To determine if the absence of c-Jun N-terminal kinase 3 (JNK3) in the mouse retina would reduce retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss in mice with experimental glaucoma. C57BL/6 mice underwent experimental intraocular pressure (IOP) elevation with a bead/viscoelastic injection into one eye. One-half of the mice were Jnk3 homozygous knockouts (KO) and were compared to wild type (WT) mice. IOP was measured under anesthesia with the TonoLab, axial length was measured post-mortem with calipers after inflation to 15 mmHg, and RGC layer counts were performed on retinal whole mount images stained with DAPI, imaged by confocal microscopy, and counted by masked observers in an image analysis system. Axon counts were performed in optic nerve cross-sections by semi-automated image analysis. Both WT and Jnk3^−/− mice had mean elevations of IOP of more than 50% after bead injection. Both groups underwent the expected axial globe elongation due to chronic IOP elevation. The absence of JNK3 in KO retina was demonstrated by Western blots. RGC layer neuron counts showed modest loss in both WT and Jnk3^−/− animals; local differences by retinal eccentricity were detected, in each case indicating greater loss in KO animals than in WT. The baseline number of RGC layer cells in KO animals was 10% higher than in WT, but the number of optic nerve axons was identical in KO and WT controls. A slightly greater loss of RGC in Jnk3^−/− mice compared to controls was detected in experimental mouse glaucoma by RGC layer counting and there was no protective effect shown in axon counts. Counts of RGC layer cells and optic nerve axons indicate that Jnk3^−/− mice have an increased number of amacrine cells compared to WT controls.     

Neuroprotective effects of recombinant human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) in neurodegeneration after optic nerve crush in rats

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF) on neurodegeneration of optic nerve (ON) and retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in a rat model of ON crush. The ONs of adult male Wistar rats (150-180 g) were crushed by a standardized method. The control eyes received a sham operation. G-CSF (100 μg/kg/day in 0.2 ml phosphate-buffered saline) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS control) was immediately administered after ON crush for 5 days by subcutaneous injection. Rats were euthanized at 1 or 2 weeks after the crush injury. RGC density was counted by retrograde labeling with FluoroGold application to the superior colliculus, and visual function was assessed by flash visual evoked potentials (FVEP). TUNEL assay, Western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry of p-AKT in the retina and ED1 (marker of macrophage/microglia) in the ON were conducted. 2 weeks after the insult, the RGC densities in the central and mid-peripheral retinas in ON-crushed, G-CSF-treated rats were significantly higher than that of the corresponding ON-crushed, PBS-treated rats (survival rate was 60% vs. 19.6% in the central retina; 46.5% vs. 23.9% in mid-peripheral retina, respectively; p < 0.001). FVEP measurements showed a significantly better preserved latency of the p1 wave in the ON-crushed, G-CSF-treated rats than the ON-crushed, PBS-treated rats (78 ± 9 ms in the sham operation group, 98 ± 16 ms in the G-CSF-treated group, and 174 ± 16 ms in the PBS-treated group; p < 0.001). TUNEL assays showed fewer apoptotic cells in the retinal sections in the ON-crushed, G-CSF-treated rats. p-AKT immunoreactivity was up-regulated in the retinas of the ON-crushed, G-CSF-treated rats at 1 and 2 weeks. In addition, the number of ED1-positive cells was attenuated at the lesion site of the optic nerve in the ON-crushed, G-CSF-treated group. From these results, we gather that administration of G-CSF is neuroprotective in the rat model of optic nerve crush, as demonstrated both structurally by RGC density and functionally by FVEP. G-CSF may work by being anti-apoptotic involving the p-AKT signaling pathway as well as by attenuation of the inflammatory responses at the injury site, as evidenced by less ED1-positive cell infiltration in the optic nerve.     

Apoptotic retinal ganglion cell death in the DBA/2 mouse model of glaucoma

The DBA/2 mouse has been used as a model for spontaneous secondary glaucoma. We attempted to determine the in vivo time course and spatial distribution of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) undergoing apoptotic death in DBA/2 mice. Female DBA/2 mice, 3, 9-10, 12, 15, and 18 months of age, received intravitreal injections of Annexin-V conjugated to AlexaFluor 1h prior to euthanasia. Retinas were fixed and flat-mounted. Annexin-V-positive RGCs in the hemiretina opposite the site of injection were counted, and their locations were recorded. Positive controls for detection of apoptotic RGCs by Annexin-V labeling included rats subjected to optic nerve ligation, and C57BL/6 mice subjected to either optic nerve ligation or intravitreal injection of NMDA. To verify that Annexin-V-labeled cells were RGCs, intravitreal Annexin-V injections were also performed on retinas pre-labeled retrogradely with FluoroGold or with DiI. Annexin-V-positive RGC locations were analyzed to determine possible clustering and areas of preferential loss. Annexin-V labeled apoptotic RGCs in eyes after optic nerve ligation, intravitreal NMDA injection, as well as in aged DBA/2 animals. In glaucomatous DBA/2 mice 95-100% of cells labeled with Annexin-V were also FluoroGold- and DiI-positive. This confirms that Annexin-V can be used to specifically detect apoptotic RGCs in rodent retinas. In DBA/2 mice, apoptotic RGC death is maximal from the 12th to the 15th month of age (ANOVA, p<0.001, Fisher's post hoc test) and occurs in clusters. These clusters are initially located in the midperipheral retina and progressively occur closer to the optic nerve head with increasing age. Retrograde axonal transport of FluoroGold in the glaucomatous mouse retina is functional until at least 2-3days prior to initiation of apoptotic RGC death.     

Reduced retina microglial activation and improved optic nerve integrity with minocycline treatment in the DBA/2J mouse model of glaucoma

PURPOSE: In the context of the retinal ganglion cell (RGC) axon degeneration in the optic nerve that occurs in glaucoma, microglia become activated, then phagocytic, and redistribute in the optic nerve head. The authors investigated the potential contribution of retinal microglia activation to glaucoma progression in the DBA/2J chronic mouse glaucoma model. METHODS: The authors treated 6-week-old DBA/2J mice for 25 weeks with minocycline, a tetracycline derivative known to reduce microglia activation and to improve neuronal survival in other models of neurodegenerative disease. They quantified RGC numbers and characterized microglia activation, gliosis, and both axonal integrity and retrograde tracer transport by RGCs in mice systemically treated with minocycline or vehicle only. RESULTS: Minocycline reduced microglial activation and improved RGC axonal transport and integrity, yet it had no effect on the characteristic age-related ocular changes that lead to chronically elevated pressure and did not alter Müller or astrocyte gliosis. Specifically, minocycline increased the fraction of microglia with resting ramified morphology and reduced levels of Iba1 mRNA and protein, a microglia-specific calcium ligand linked to activation. The reduction in microglial activation was coupled to significant improvement in RGC axonal transport, as measured by neuronal retrograde tracing from the superior colliculus. Finally, minocycline treatment significantly decoupled RGC axon loss from increased intraocular pressure. CONCLUSIONS: These observations suggest that in glaucoma, retina and optic nerve head microglia activation may be a factor in the early decline in function of the optic nerve and its subsequent degeneration.     

Optic nerve transection in monkeys may result in secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells

PURPOSE: Interest in neuroprotection for optic neuropathies is, in part, based on the assumption that retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) die, not only as a result of direct (primary) injury, but also indirectly as a result of negative effects from neighboring dying RGCs (secondary degeneration). This experiment was designed to test whether secondary RGC degeneration occurs after orbital optic nerve injury in monkeys. METHODS: The superior one third of the orbital optic nerve on one side was transected in eight cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Twelve weeks after the partial transection, the number of RGC bodies in the superior and inferior halves of the retina of the experimental and control eyes and the number and diameter of axons in the optic nerve were compared by detailed histomorphometry. Vitreous was obtained for amino acid analysis. A sham operation was performed in three additional monkeys. RESULTS: Transection caused loss of 55% +/- 13% of RGC bodies in the superior retina of experimental compared with fellow control eyes (mean +/- SD, t-test, P < 0.00,001, n = 7). Inferior RGCs, not directly injured by transection, decreased by 22% +/- 10% (P = 0.002). The loss of superior optic nerve axons was 83% +/- 12% (mean +/- SD, t-test, P = 0.0008, n = 5) whereas, the inferior loss was 34% +/- 20% (P = 0.02, n = 5). Intravitreal levels of glutamate and other amino acids in eyes with transected nerves were not different from levels in control eyes 12 weeks after injury. Fundus examination, fluorescein angiography, and histologic evaluation confirmed that there was no vascular compromise to retinal tissues by the transection procedure. CONCLUSIONS: This experiment suggests that primary RGC death due to optic nerve injury is associated with secondary death of surrounding RGCs that are not directly injured.     

Mechanism of retinal ganglion cells death in secondary degeneration of the optic nerve

In central nervous system injury, the secondary degeneration process is known to play a major role in determining the final extent of impairment. Here, we investigated the mechanism of retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death in secondary degeneration of the optic nerve using a unique model that allows morphological separation between primary and secondary degeneration. A partial transection model was applied unilaterally in 110 Wistar rat eyes. The rate of apoptosis was evaluated in primary and secondary degeneration over a period of 6 months using the Hoechst staining technique. The involvement of caspase 3 and members of the Bcl-2 family (Bax, Bad, Bcl-2 and Bcl-xl) was evaluated at multiple time points for 6 months after the injury by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR. We found that in secondary degeneration of the optic nerve, RGCs died by apoptosis from day 3-6 months following the injury, peaking at 3 months (16.3% ± 2.5% apoptotic cells, p < 0.01). Both primary and secondary degeneration of the optic nerve resulted in caspase 3 activation, which was longer and more intense in the former. Similarly, both primary and secondary degeneration led to significant (p < 0.05) downregulation of the pro-survival genes Bcl-2 and Bcl-x-L and up-regulation of the pro-apoptotic genes Bax and Bad (p < 0.05), with a suggested delay in secondary degeneration. Thus, secondary degeneration of the optic nerve leads to RGC apoptosis over long periods in a similar mechanism as in primary degeneration.     

Tracking retinal microgliosis in models of retinal ganglion cell damage

Purpose. To investigate the longitudinal profiles of microgliosis after optic nerve injury induced by optic nerve crush and acute elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP). Methods. A confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope was used to image the retinal microglia of the CX3CR1(GFP/+) transgenic mice in vivo at baseline, 3 days and then weekly for 4 weeks after optic nerve crush (n = 3), and after elevating the IOP to 110 mm Hg for 30 (n = 3) or 60 (n = 3) minutes. Results. After optic nerve crush, the density of microglia increased by 2.43 ± 0.19-fold at week 1 and then gradually declined with 2.04 ± 0.24-, 1.69 ± 0.25-, and 1.29 ± 0.11-fold increases at week 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Microgliosis followed a similar pattern after acute IOP elevation and the increase in microglia was associated with the duration of IOP elevation. There were 1.35 ± 0.17- and 2.03 ± 0.08-fold increases in microglia at week 1, and 1.15 ± 0.11- and 1.11 ± 0.10-fold increases at week 4, after 30 and 60 minutes of acute IOP elevation, respectively. The morphology of microglia changed from ramified to ameboid form in 1 week, and then returned to ramified form in the subsequent weeks. There was a significant negative association between the number of surviving retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and the extent of microgliosis during the follow-up period (R(2) = 0.72, P = 0.004). Conclusions. Longitudinal in vivo imaging of the retinal microglia can provide an effective approach to study microgliosis and its association with RGC degeneration.     

Activation of retinal glial cells contributes to the degeneration of ganglion cells in experimental glaucoma

Elevation of intraocular pressure (IOP) is a major risk factor for neurodegeneration in glaucoma. Glial cells, which play an important role in normal functioning of retinal neurons, are well involved into retinal ganglion cell (RGC) degeneration in experimental glaucoma animal models generated by elevated IOP. In response to elevated IOP, mGluR I is first activated and Kir4.1 channels are subsequently inhibited, which leads to the activation of Müller cells. Müller cell activation is followed by a complex process, including proliferation, release of inflammatory and growth factors (gliosis). Gliosis is further regulated by several factors. Activated Müller cells contribute to RGC degeneration through generating glutamate receptor-mediated excitotoxicity, releasing cytotoxic factors and inducing microglia activation. Elevated IOP activates microglia, and following morphological and functional changes, these cells, as resident immune cells in the retina, show adaptive immune responses, including an enhanced release of pro-inflammatory factors (tumor neurosis factor-α, interleukins, etc.). These ATP and Toll-like receptor-mediated responses are further regulated by heat shock proteins, CD200R, chemokine receptors, and metabotropic purinergic receptors, may aggravate RGC loss. In the optic nerve head, astrogliosis is initiated and regulated by a complex reaction process, including purines, transmitters, chemokines, growth factors and cytokines, which contributes to RGC axon injury through releasing pro-inflammatory factors and changing extracellular matrix in glaucoma. The effects of activated glial cells on RGCs are further modified by the interplay among different types of glial cells. This review is concluded by presenting an in-depth discussion of possible research directions in this field in the future.     

Nerve growth factor (NGF) reduces and NGF antibody exacerbates retinal damage induced in rabbit by experimental ocular hypertension

• Background: It has been shown that intravitreal injection of NGF inhibits ganglion cell degeneration after optic nerve transection and ischemic injury. The aim of our study was to investigate the presence of NGF in aqueous humor and its involvement in retinal damage during ocular hypertension. • Methods: We used an experimental model of ocular hypertension in rabbit. Before treatment and 4, 10 and 15 days after induction of hypertension, we evaluated histological retinal damage and NGF levels in aqueous humor using an immunoenzymatic assay. Polyclonal anti-NGF antibodies were injected intravitreally into one eye of each rabbit (n = 6), and the animals were killed after 4 days of hypertension. Another group of rabbits (n =12) was injected retro-ocularly with NGF and killed after 10 or 15 days of treatment for histologic evaluation of the retina. • Results: Our data show that experimental ocular hypertension in adult rabbits induces retinal damage and enhances local NGF levels. The highest NGF value was found after 4 days of intraocular hypertension; high levels persisted, though to a lesser extent, for up to 15 days. Histological examination revealed that the number of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) remained unchanged during the first 4 days but decreased at 10 days. These studies also showed that retro-ocular administration of NGF reduced RGC loss, whereas intraocular injection of NGF antibodies, which inhibited the endogenous NGF, exacerbated the retinal insult. • Conclusion: These findings demonstrate a protective effect of NGF on RGC damaged by ocular hypertension and prompt further investigations to evaluate a possible therapeutic use of NGF to retard RGC death in humans.     

经瞳孔温热疗法对急性高眼压大鼠视网膜神经节细胞的保护作用

目的研究低阈值经瞳孔温热疗法（TTT）对急性高眼压大鼠视网膜神经节细胞（RGC）是否具有保护作用。设计实验研究。研究对象BN大鼠。方法采用810nm二极管激光机对10只大鼠视网膜进行热刺激，照射光斑1．2mm，能量50mW，照射时间20s，干预后3d光镜下观察视网膜形态结构的改变，免疫组化方法检测HSP70、HSP27在视网膜组织表达。采用上述激光参数，照射视网膜后3d，制作急性高眼压模型（TTT＋I/R组，n=10），采用TUNEL法检测RGC层细胞凋亡数量，及计数高倍镜下RGC层细胞数，与未干预的急性高眼压模型组（I/R组，n=10）、单纯TTT干预组（TTT组）及正常对照组（n=6）进行比较。主要指标免疫组化染色RGC细胞数及RGC层细胞凋亡数。结果采用低阈值TTT可诱导BN大鼠视网膜神经节细胞HSP70及HSP27表达，且光镜下未出现明显视网膜脉络膜形态的改变。TTT＋I／R组RGC层细胞凋亡数量明显少于I／R组（P=0．048），且前者RGC层细胞数量明显多于后者（辟0．016）；TTT组与正常对照组比较RGC层细胞凋亡数量无显著性差异（P=0．882），但RGC层细胞数明显少于正常对照组（P=0．001）。结论低阈值TTT可诱导BN大鼠视网膜HSP70、HSP27表达，并在急性高眼压损伤下对大鼠RGC凋亡具有抑制作用。（眼科，2007,16：48—51）     

A model to study differences between primary and secondary degeneration of retinal ganglion cells in rats by partial optic nerve transection

PURPOSE: To use a rat model of optic nerve injury to differentiate primary and secondary retinal ganglion cell (RGC) injury. METHODS: Under general anesthesia, a modified diamond knife was used to transect the superior one third of the orbital optic nerve in albino Wistar rats. The number of surviving RGC was quantified by counting both the number of cells retrogradely filled with fluorescent gold dye injected into the superior colliculus 1 week before nerve injury and the number of axons in optic nerve cross sections. RGCs were counted in 56 rats, with 24 regions examined in each retinal wholemount. Rats were studied at 4 days, 8 days, 4 weeks, and 9 weeks after transection. The interocular difference in RGCs was also compared in five control rats that underwent no surgery and in five rats who underwent a unilateral sham operation. It was confirmed histologically that only the upper optic nerve had been directly injured. RESULTS: At 4 and 8 days after injury, superior RGCs showed a mean difference from their fellow eyes of -30.3% and -62.8%, respectively (P = 0.02 and 0.001, t-test, n = 8 rats/group), whereas sham-operation eyes had no significant loss (mean difference between eyes = 1.7%, P = 0.74, t-test). At 8 days, inferior RGCs were unchanged from control, fellow eyes (mean interocular difference = -4.8%, P = 0.16, t-test). Nine weeks after transection, inferior RGC had 34.5% fewer RGCs than their fellow eyes, compared with 41.2% fewer RGCs in the superior zones of the injured eyes compared with fellow eyes. Detailed, serial section studies of the topography of RGC axons in the optic nerve showed an orderly arrangement of fibers that were segregated in relation to the position of their cell bodies in the retina. CONCLUSIONS: A model of partial optic nerve transection in rats showed rapid loss of directly injured RGCs in the superior retina and delayed, but significant secondary loss of RGCs in the inferior retina, whose axons were not severed. The findings confirm similar results in monkey eyes and provide a rodent model in which pharmacologic interventions against secondary degeneration can be tested.     

Protective effects of catalase on retinal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats

Retinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury causes profound tissue damage, especially retinal ganglion cell (RGC) death. The aims of the study were to investigate whether catalase (CAT) has a neuroprotective effect on RGC after I/R injury in rats, and to determine the possible antioxidant mechanism. Wistar female rats were randonmized into four groups: normal control group (Control group), retinal I/R with vehicle group (I/R with vehicle group), retinal I/R with AAV-CAT group (I/R with AAV-CAT group), and normal retina with AAV-CAT group (normal with AAV-CAT group). One eye of each rat was pretreated with recombinant adeno-associated virus containing catalase gene (I/R with AAV-CAT group or normal with AAV-CAT group) and recombinant adeno-associated virus containing GFP gene (I/R with vehicle group) by intravitreal injection 21 days before initiation of I/R injury. Retinal I/R injury was induced by elevating intraocular pressure to 100 mmHg for 1 h. The number of RGC and inner plexiform layer (IPL) thickness were measured by fluorogold retrograde labeling and hematoxylin and eosin staining at 6 h, 24 h, 72 h and 5d after injury. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂), the number of RGC, IPL thickness, malondialdehyde(MDA), 8-hydroxy-2-deoxyguanosine (8-OHdG), CAT activity and nitrotyrosine were measured by fluorescence staining, immunohistochemistry and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay analysis at 5 days after injury. Electroretinographic (ERG) evaluation was also used. Pretreatment of AAV-CAT significantly decreased the levels of H₂O₂, MDA, 8-OHdG and nitrotyrosine, increased the catalase activity, and prevented the reduction of a- and b- waves in the I/R with AAV-CAT group compare with the I/R with vehicle group (p < 0.01). Catalase attenuated the I/R-induced damage of RGC and IPL and retinal function. Therefore, catalase can protect the rat retina from I/R-induced injury by enhancing the antioxidative ability and reducing oxidative stress, which suggests that catalase may be relevant for the neuroprotection of inner retina from I/R-related diseases.