Osteoporosis in people with intellectual disabilities: a review and a brief study of risk factors for osteoporosis in a community sample of people with intellectual disabilities

Background The population of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) is increasing and their health needs impact on primary and secondary healthcare specialities. One important aspect of their physical health is bone health as people with ID have increased risk factors associated with osteoporosis. It has been identified that this population has an increased prevalence of low bone mineral density (BMD), osteoporosis and osteopenia. The main contributory factors for low BMD are age, use of antiepileptics, immobility and diagnosis of Down's syndrome. Methods A literature search of electronic databases was undertaken. Studies that included people with ID were reviewed for the prevalence of osteoporosis and osteopenia. A cross‐sectional survey was conducted in a community sample (n = 149) to screen for risk factors for osteoporosis. Results The majority of studies identified increased prevalence of osteoporosis and osteopenia with associated low BMD. In most studies individuals with ID presented with more than two risk factors. In our survey, we identified an increased prevalence of risk factors associated with osteoporosis, namely use of antiepileptics (64%), immobility (23%), history of falls (20%) and fractures (11%). We found that 54% of our sample fulfilled the criteria for screening. Of those who went on to have scans, 55% had osteoporosis and 33% had osteopenia. Conclusion We conclude that we should be screening for the risk factors associated with low BMD in adults with ID. If these are present further investigations should take place and those found to have osteoporosis and osteopenia should have treatment at an early stage to prevent morbidity and improve their quality of life.     

长沙地区女性促卵泡刺激素水平与骨密度和骨质疏松患病率的关系

目的：调查中国女性年龄相关的血清促卵泡刺激素浓度及其与骨密度和骨质疏松症患病率之间的关系。 方法：于2007-06/2008-06选择自长沙和附近地区20~82岁699名健康的中国女性,排除患有影响骨代谢疾病、服用影响骨代谢药物的个体。其中绝经前妇女464名和绝经后妇女235名,绝经年龄为41~59岁。受试者均知情同意并签定了书面协议书。抽空腹静脉血测定血清卵泡刺激素和黄体生成素浓度。用DXA仪测定腰椎、总髋部、前臂超远端骨密度,评价血清促卵泡刺激素与年龄、骨密度和患骨质疏松症风险的关系。 结果：促卵泡刺激素约从40岁起随增龄而增加,到60岁又随增龄而下降。促卵泡刺激素与不同部位骨骼的骨密度呈显著负相关。在腰椎、总髋部、前臂超远端,促卵泡刺激素四分位数的骨质疏松症平均患病率分别为0.57%,0.43%,27.1%,30.9%。与一分位数和三分位数比较,四分位数的妇女骨质疏松症患病率和患病风险显著增加;与三分位数比较,处于四分位数的妇女骨质疏松症患病率和患病风险也显著增加,特别是在腰椎。 结论：血清促卵泡刺激素水平与骨密度的变化呈负相关,和骨质疏松症的发生呈正相关。     

Osteoporosis in Parkinson's disease.

There are few studies of osteoporosis in Parkinson's disease (PD). We assessed the prevalence of osteoporosis in a PD clinic cohort. All subjects with a confirmed diagnosis of PD attending a clinic were invited to participate. All consenting subjects had bone density measured by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry scanning. Further data, including demography, disease duration, and disease severity, were collected. One hundred five subjects participated; median age was 75 (54-92) years. Fifty-one (49%) patients were men. Of the men: median T score, -1.3 (range, -4.7 to 3.8); median Z score, 0.0 (-3.2 to 4.7); diagnostic categories: osteoporosis, 20%; osteopenia, 41%; normal, 39%. Of the women: median T score -2.7 (-4.7 to 1.4); median Z score, -0.25 (-2.6 to 4.2); diagnostic categories: osteoporosis, 63%; osteopenia, 28%; and normal, 9%. Whole sample: osteoporosis, 42%; osteopenia, 34%; and normal, 24%. There were associations between age, depression, disease duration, and osteoporosis but not with disease severity. Female gender was an independent predictor of osteoporosis. The prevalence of osteoporosis/osteopenia is considerable in PD patients but does not exceed that of other people of similar age. Osteoporosis/osteopenia was present in almost all women of this age group with PD.     

湖州市住院老年精神障碍患者骨量减少和骨质疏松的发生率及骨密度下降的相关因素(英文)

背景 国内对住院的老年精神障碍患者骨折风险的研究较少。目的 评估老年精神障碍患者的骨密度(bone mineral density, BMD),探明骨密度降低、骨量减少(osteopenia )和骨质疏松(osteoporosis)的相关因素。方法 随机选取湖州市第三人民医院老年科精神障碍住院患者(60岁或以上,诊断为精神分裂症、抑郁症、双相障碍或痴呆)102例。采集患者详细的人口学资料、临床资料、身高和体重指数等,采用双能X射线吸收测定法(dual energy X-ray absorptiometry,DXA)测定腰椎的骨密度。根据世界卫生组织的标准,将低于健康成人平均骨密度1～2.5个标准差者判定为骨量减少,将低于2.5个标准差以上者判定为骨质疏松。结果 骨量减少的发生率为 33.3%(95%CI,24.4%～43.2%),骨质疏松的发生率为 35.3%(26.0%～45.2%),所有这些患者均没有因骨密度降低而接受相应治疗,即便是 5 例曾发生过非外伤性骨折的患者也不例外。女性骨质疏松的发生率是男性的 10 倍(53%比5%)。骨密度随年龄的增加而下降,但随体重指数的增加而增加(患者营养状况改变的结果)。抑郁症患者骨质疏松的发生率(58%)远远高于精神分裂症(33%)、阿尔茨海默病(30%)以及双相障碍(13%)的患者。将骨量减少、骨质疏松患者合并为一组后回归分析发现,低骨密度和合并组均与女性、年龄大、体重指数低及抑郁症诊断独立相关。骨密度下降及骨质疏松与规律服用抗精神病药不相关。结论 骨量减少和骨质疏松是老年精神障碍患者常见的问题,会严重影响其生活质量,但这些问题往往没有得到诊治。需要进一步开展长期的前瞻性研究,以便阐明营养状况、活动量、药物使用及其他因素在精神疾病与骨密度下降之间的病因学通路中所起的重要作用。     

Bone mineral density and depression: a community study in women

In a community sample of 102 Portuguese white women we evaluated the relationship between osteoporosis and indexes of psychopathology and well-being. Depressive symptoms were assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), psychopathology by the Hopkins Symptom Checklist-90 Revised (SCL-90-R), and quality of life using the Psychological General Well-Being Index. A questionnaire comprising social, demographic, clinical, and behavioral characteristics was also used. The sample prevalence of osteoporosis was 47.1%. Women with osteoporosis presented significantly higher scores on the total BDI (16+/-9 vs. 13+/-10, p=0.045) and lower scores in the hostility (0.8+/-0.6 vs. 1.2+/-0.7, p=0.012) and phobic anxiety (1.1+/-0.8 vs. 1.5+/-0.9, p=0.041) subscales of the SCL-90-R. No differences were found regarding mean general well-being scores (62+/-17 vs. 64+/-19, p=0.665). This study showed that women with osteoporosis have significantly higher levels of depressive symptoms and a corresponding higher prevalence of depression, independent of other factors strongly associated with osteoporosis, such as age or body mass index.     

Cardiovascular Autonomic Dysfunction: Link Between Multiple Sclerosis Osteoporosis and Neurodegeneration

The high prevalence of osteoporosis, observed in multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, has been attributed to reduced mobility and or the use of disease-modifying drugs. However, MS-impaired cardiovascular autonomic nervous system (ANS) function has the potential of reducing bone mass density (BMD) by altering the expression and/or function of the neuronal, systemic, and local mediators of bone remodeling. This review describes the complex regulation of bone homeostasis with a focus on MS, providing evidence that ANS dysfunction and low BMD are intertwined with MS inflammatory and neurodegenerative processes, and with other MS-related morbidities, including depression, fatigue, and migraine. Strategies for improving ANS function could reduce the prevalence of MS osteoporosis and slow the rate of MS progression, with a significant positive impact on patients’ quality of life.     

Hyperprolactinemia and bone mineral density: the potential impact of antipsychotic agents

The prevalence of schizophrenia is about 1% worldwide. Individuals with schizophrenia are at increased risk for osteoporosis and fractures for several reasons, including poor diet, lack of exercise, cigarette smoking, and polydipsia. Some antipsychotic medications may further increase the risk of fractures by causing dizziness, orthostatic hypotension, and falls. Studies in women with hyperprolactinemia resulting from pituitary tumors have demonstrated high rates of osteoporosis believed to result from hypoestrogenism. Similarly, hyperprolactinemia in men results in hypogonadism and bone loss. Preliminary surveys have indicated that schizophrenia patients also may have elevated rates of osteoporosis and pathological fractures, possibly resulting in part from the long-term administration of antipsychotic agents that produce hyperprolactinemia and secondarily lower estrogen and testosterone levels. This potential complication of treatment with certain antipsychotic agents requires careful study and could represent a serious public health problem.     

Strategies of Spinal Fusion on Osteoporotic Spine

The prevalence of osteoporosis has been increasing globally. Recently surgical indications for elderly patients with osteoporosis have been increasing. However, only few strategies are available for osteoporotic patients who need spinal fusion. Osteoporosis is a result of negative bone remodeling from enhanced function of the osteoclasts. Because bone formation is the result of coupling between osteoblasts and osteoclasts, anti-resorptive agents that induce osteoclast apoptosis may not be effective in spinal fusion surgery, necessitating new bone formation. Therefore, anabolic agents may be more suitable for osteoporotic patients who undergo spinal fusion surgery. The instrumentations and techniques with increased pullout strength may increase fusion rate through rigid fixation. Studies on new osteoinductive materials, methods to increase osteogenic cells, strengthened and biocompatible osteoconductive scaffolds are necessary to enable osteoporotic patients to undergo spinal fusion. When osteoporotic patients undergo spinal fusion, surgeons should consider appropriate osteoporosis medication, instrumentation and technique.     

Bone quality in older adults with intellectual disabilities

Although osteoporosis is a progressive bone disease leading to increased risk of fracture, it has rarely been investigated on a large scale in older people with intellectual disabilities (ID). In this study, 768 persons with ID (aged ≥ 50 years) were measured with quantitative ultrasound to determine the prevalence of low bone quality. The association of low bone quality with patient characteristics, mobility, physical activity, body mass index (BMI), prior fractures, anticonvulsant drug use, intake of calcium, and vitamin D3 levels was also investigated. The prevalence of low bone quality was 43.9%. Low bone quality was positively associated with female gender, age, more severe level of ID, mobility impairment, and anticonvulsant drug use, and negatively with BMI. In clinical practice, people with ID who are at risk for low bone quality should periodically be screened for osteoporosis and be given advice about nutritional supplements and appropriate lifestyle.     

Musculoskeletal problems in Parkinson’s disease

Musculoskeletal problems are very common and are an important contributor to poor quality of life in Parkinson’s disease. However, they are under-appreciated, under-evaluated, and under-treated. This paper will address the prevalence of musculoskeletal problems in Parkinson’s disease, and review the clinical characteristics of selected musculoskeletal conditions, such as shoulder problems, low back pain, arthritis, deformity, osteoporosis and fracture. Finally, a variety of treatment modalities for musculoskeletal problems will be reviewed.     

Hyperechoic plaque: an ultrasound marker for osteoporosis in acute stroke patients with carotid disease

BACKGROUND: Osteoporosis is a significant complication of stroke, and hip fracture after a stroke is a frequent problem. Moreover, growing evidence links vascular and bone diseases, in the form of osteoporosis associated with both atherosclerosis and vascular calcification. The aim of our study is to detect bone change in the acute phase of ischemic stroke in patients with carotid disease and to verify the correlation with carotid echogenic plaques. PATIENTS AND METHOD: Out of 245 subjects consecutively admitted to our Stroke Unit for their first ischemic stroke, we selected 49 patients with a first-ever stroke due to carotid atherosclerosis without a previous diagnosis of bone disease. We assessed risk factors for cerebrovascular disease as well as for osteoporosis, the degree of neurological deficit and disability, and bone mineral density that was quantified by bilateral hip dual energy X-ray absorbimetry. Osteoporosis was defined as a T score below -2.5. Carotid ultrasound was used to classify plaques in non-hyperechoic (grade 1) and hyperechoic plaque (grade 2). RESULTS: We found a high prevalence of low bone mass density (BMD) in our patients (18 out of 49=36.7%), without relationship to the side of paresis. According to univariate analysis evidence of osteoporosis was correlated with age (p=0.05), score of Scandinavian Stroke Scale (p=0.01) and grade 2 plaque (p=0.01). According to multivariate analysis, there was a significant positive correlation between grade 2 plaques and osteoporosis (OR=6.58; 95% CI=1.57-27.54; p=0.01), which was stronger in women (OR=18.15; 95% CI=1.80-182.83; p=0.01). The percentage of intraplaque hyperechogenicity was inversely correlated with BMD (r=-0.411, p=0.016). CONCLUSION: Osteoporosis is highly prevalent in acute atherosclerotic stroke patients. Carotid hyperechoic plaque is an independent marker of osteoporosis.     

Prevalence of fractures in women with intellectual disabilities: a chart review

Background Numerous studies have demonstrated high rates of osteoporosis and fractures in women with intellectual disabilities (IDs). All of the studies use either institutionalized women or women in the community recruited at adult day‐care centres or specialty clinics. We examined the prevalence of fractures in women with IDs who attend a primary care clinic, and assessed osteoporosis‐prevention/intervention activities. Methods This was a chart review study. Charts were identified of women with an ICD‐9 diagnosis code for ID, Down syndrome or developmental disabilities. All charts reviewed were patients of one of 13 family medicine clinics affiliated with Department of Family Medicine, the University of Wisconsin. Results A total of 93 charts were reviewed. More than 32% (30/93) of the charts contained a history of an adult‐onset fracture. Increasing age, being postmenopausal and taking anticonvulsant medications were significantly associated with having a fracture. The average age of first fracture was 41.7 years. Of the women with a fracture, 35.5% were placed on a medication to maintain bone density, 67.7% received a recommendation for a calcium supplement, and 38.7% obtained a bone density test. Discussion The prevalence of fractures in women with IDs attending a family medicine clinic was very high, and fractures occurred at young ages. Primary care providers need to consider women with IDs at a high risk for fractures and begin preventive counselling in young women.     

Survey of risk factors for osteoporosis and osteoprotective behaviors among patients with epilepsy

The prevalence of risk factors for osteoporosis in persons with epilepsy, patients' awareness of their risk, and their engagement in osteoprotective behaviors were assessed in this study. Two hundred and sixty patients with epilepsy (F = 51.5%, average age = 42) completed a survey tool. Of 106 patients with a dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) result, 52% had low bone mineral density, and 11% had osteoporosis. The results suggest that the majority of patients with epilepsy do not engage in bone-protective behaviors. Those who have undergone a DXA scan may be more likely to take calcium and vitamin D supplementation compared with those who did not undergo a DXA scan, but they do not engage in other osteoprotective behaviors. Many patients did not accurately report their DXA results, indicating that better patient education is warranted.     

Kindliche und adoleszente Anorexia nervosa

The estimated prevalence of anorexia nervosa is highest in teenagers and probably increasing in prepubertal girls, while morbidity rates in female adults remain constant. Childhood and adolescent AN often take a chronic and disabling course with severe consequences for somatic and mental health in adulthood and an eventually high mortality. Besides a reduced growth, diminished reproduction rate and an increased risk of osteoporosis a prolonged course of the disorder may impact on the development of the adolescent brain, probably by hormonal dysfunctions such as those of the corticoid and gonadal system and by severe changes in neuropeptides such as leptin. Thus, besides a genetic disposition, longer lasting effects of starvation on brain development might explain the high prevalence of mental disorders in adulthood of former AN patients. Neuropsychological findings resembling those in obsessive-compulsive disorder and autism spectrum disorders are of growing importance because they might contribute to more effective and specific interventions in both adolescent and adult eating disorders.     

Correlates of generalized anxiety disorder: independent of co-morbidity with depression

Background

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is a prevalent psychiatric disorder with chronic symptoms and is commonly comorbid with depression.

Objectives

To identify correlates of GAD among adults and to describe treatment patterns and functional limitations among individuals with this disorder.

Methods

Data for 2,082 subjects aged ≥21 years from the first Israeli national health interview survey (INHIS-1) (2003–2004) were analyzed. Information on GAD was collected using the short form of the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Data were also obtained on socio-demographic, physical health characteristics, history of life threatening events, treatment seeking behaviors, use of medication and functional impairment.

Results

The prevalence of GAD was highest among people aged 40–59 years, in those with asthma, hypertension and in those with osteoporosis. Regular exercise was associated with reduced prevalence for GAD (adjusted OR 0.46, 95% CI 0.22–0.95). The exclusion of individuals with major depression from analysis strengthened the association with age (adjusted OR 5.7, 95% CI 1.7, 19.7), weakened the association between GAD and osteoporosis (adjusted OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.2, 9.8), asthma (adjusted OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.2, 9.5) and regular exercise (adjusted OR 0.47 95% CI 0.2, 1.14). In this sub-sample, hypertension was no longer associated with GAD, and a significant association was found between GAD and past experience of life threatening events (adjusted OR 2.3, 95% CI 1.1–4.9). Psychiatric and psychological consultations were low among people with GAD (11.5% and 26.4% for those without and with comorbid depression, respectively), concurrent with a high degree of functional limitation.

Conclusions

Middle age, history of traumatic life events, and certain chronic medical diseases (e.g., asthma and osteoporosis) are important risk factors for GAD. They could be used to help identify and treat people with GAD.     

Functional status and clinical correlates in cognitively impaired community-living older people

We describe the prevalence of cognitive impairment in a population of community-living older people, its association with functional decline, and degree of comorbidity. In addition, we examined the relationship between different levels of cognitive impairment and mortality. We conducted an observational study of 1787 patients aged 65 years and above with any degree of cognitive impairment. Patient data were collected with the Minimum Data Set for Home Care. More than 50% of patients had some level of cognitive impairment, which correlates with the degree of physical frailty. On the contrary, patients with cognitive impairment appear to have fewer comorbid conditions and are less likely to receive medications than patients with normal cognitive status. In particular, hypertension, congestive heart failure, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cancer, diabetes mellitus, and osteoporosis are found more frequently among patients with normal mental status compared with those showing some level of cognitive defects. Yet, more severe cognitive impairment is associated with a higher mortality rate. Demented patients are characterized by a high prevalence of functional disability and by increased mortality. This increased morbidity and mortality rate is associated with a lower prevalence of comorbid clinical conditions and drug use, relative to patients with normal cognitive performance. The present findings support the possibility that severe cognitive impairment has an independent effect on survival.     

Bone mineral density in male schizophrenia patients: a review.

BACKGROUND: Decreased bone mineral density (BMD) has been documented frequently in female patients with schizophrenia receiving antipsychotic therapy with potent dopamine D(2) antagonists, but there has been much less coverage of this issue in male patients with schizophrenia despite the fact that older males who sustain osteopenia-related hip fractures have subsequently greater mortality than females. METHODS: A Medline search was performed for the years 1966-2004 using the following search terms: "osteopenia or osteoporosis or bone density or bone mineral density," combined with "schizophrenia or psychosis or antipsychotic." RESULTS: The search yielded 8 studies which provided data on bone mineral density in male patients with schizophrenia, of which 2 were case reports, and 3 were controlled studies. Hormonal measures were present in 6 studies. In every study where such information was provided, the patients with schizophrenia had significantly lower BMD than nonschizophrenic controls or population norms, with the prevalence of osteopenia ranging from 40-72%. CONCLUSIONS: Low BMD and corresponding osteopenia or osteoporosis may be a highly prevalent but significantly underdiagnosed medical condition among male schizophrenia patients. Psychiatrists should consider BMD screening among older males who have received chronic antipsychotic therapy with antipsychotics expected to achieve high levels of postsynaptic D(2) antagonism.     

骨质疏松大鼠MSCs生物学特性的研究

背景：随着近年来对骨质疏松机制研究的深入，研究者逐渐把研究重点放在了成骨细胞的来源骨髓间充质干细胞上。 目的：对骨质疏松大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞进行分离和体外培养，观察骨质疏松模型大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞的生物学特性，分析骨质疏松的细胞病理学机制，以期为骨质疏松的防治提供一个有意义的药物靶标。 方法：选用10月龄SD雌性大鼠去卵巢增龄3个月来复制骨质疏松模型，设假手术对照组。运用密度梯度离心法对两组大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞进行分离和体外培养，运用扫描电镜对培养的骨髓间充质干细胞进行形态学观察，并行生长曲线及贴壁率检测。 结果与结论：骨质疏松大鼠的骨髓间充质干细胞增殖能力明显下降，与对照大鼠相比存在许多结构特征的差异。体外实验结果表明，骨质疏松大鼠骨髓间充质干细胞的体外增殖能力下降可能是骨质疏松的细胞病理学机制。 关键词：间充质干细胞；骨质疏松；去卵巢素；大鼠；贴壁率     

Osteoporosis and fracture risk in people with schizophrenia

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Excessive bone mineral density (BMD) loss has been associated with schizophrenia, but its mechanisms and clinical implications are less clear. The aim of this review was to summarize the risk of osteoporosis and bone fractures in schizophrenia patients. Moreover, we aimed to examine the impact of antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia on bone metabolism. RECENT FINDINGS: Fifteen of 16 studies (93.8%) reported lower BMD or higher prevalence of osteoporosis in at least one region, or in at least one subgroup of schizophrenia patients compared with controls, but results were inconsistent across measured areas. Higher fracture risk was associated with schizophrenia in 2/2 studies (independently: n?=?1), and 3/4 studies with antipsychotics. Reasons for this difference include insufficient exercise, poor nutrition, smoking, alcohol use, and low vitamin D levels. Altogether, 9/15 (60.0%) studies examining the relationship between antipsychotic-induced hyperprolactinemia and BMD loss found some effects of hyperprolactinemia. However, results were mixed, samples and effects were small, and only two studies were prospective. SUMMARY: Schizophrenia is associated with reduced BMD and fracture risk. Prevention, early detection, and intervention are required. The relative contributions of antipsychotic-related hyperprolactinemia and unhealthy lifestyle behaviors remain unclear, needing to be assessed in well designed, prospective studies, including bone turnover markers as intermediary endpoints.     

Tendencias de actuación de los cirujanos de columna respecto a la osteoporosis

Background and objectivesNeurosurgeons and other specialists are increasingly having to treat patients with osteoporosis who require spinal fusion surgery.Although there are effective pharmacological treatments and innovations in surgical techniques that can benefit these patients, low rates of diagnosis and preoperative treatment of osteoporosis have been reported, in addition to the limited participation of spine surgeons in this area.The objective of this study was to evaluate trends in diagnosis and treatment of osteoporosis with regard to spine surgeons of the neurosurgical community.Material and methodsAn electronic survey with 10 multiple-choice questions was issued to Spanish Neurosurgery Society (SENEC) members. The following were evaluated: 1) the surgeon's role regarding osteoporosis in spinal arthrodesis, 2) the influence of osteoporosis in pseudarthrosis, and 3) treatment trends in relation to osteoporotic vertebral fractures.ResultsA total of 77 completed questionnaires were obtained. In patients with suspected osteoporosis, 32.5% of respondents did not consider any measure to diagnose it before spinal arthrodesis. In osteoporosis without treatment, 37.7% would proceed with surgery without treatment or would do so after surgery. A total of 48% of respondents would choose to modify their surgical strategy in patients with osteoporosis. The preferred surgical technique was the placement of augmentation screws (70%). In pseudarthrosis, 46.1% did not consider an osteoporosis diagnosis to be necessary for a reoperation. In osteoporotic vertebral fractures, 80.5% of surgeons considered some measure that would facilitate the treatment of osteoporosis.ConclusionsGreater participation of the spine surgeon could improve the diagnosis and preoperative treatment of osteoporosis in spinal arthrodesis surgery and pseudarthrosis. In vertebral fractures, there is greater awareness of the optimisation of treatment and monitoring of osteoporosis.