The Application of the Yo‐Yo Intermittent Endurance Level 2 Test to Elite Female Soccer Populations

The aim of this study was to evaluate the application of the Yo‐Yo intermittent endurance test level 2 (Yo‐Yo IE2) to elite female soccer populations. Elite senior (n = 92), youth (n = 42), domestic (n = 46) and sub‐elite female soccer players (n = 19) carried out the Yo‐Yo IE2 test on numerous occasions across the season. Test–retest coefficient of variation (CV) in Yo‐Yo IE2 test performance in domestic female players was 4.5%. Elite senior female players' Yo‐Yo IE2 test performances were better (P < 0.01) than elite youth, domestic and sub‐elite players (mean ± standard deviation; 1774 ± 532 vs 1490 ± 447, 1261 ± 449, and 994 ± 373 m). For elite senior female players, wide midfielders (2057 ± 550 m) had a higher Yo‐Yo IE2 test performance (P < 0.05) than central defenders (1588 ± 534 m) and attackers (1516 ± 401 m), but not central midfielders (1764 ± 473 m) or full‐backs (1964 ± 522 m). Large correlations were observed between Yo‐Yo IE2 test performance and the total and high‐intensity distance covered (r = 0.55; P < 0.05) during elite senior soccer matches (r = 0.70; P < 0.01). A large correlation was also obtained between Yo‐Yo IE2 test performance and (r = 0.68; P < 0.01). Performances in the Yo‐Yo IE2 test were greater (P < 0.05) in the middle and the end of the season compared with the preparation period for elite youth female players (1767 ± 539 and 1742 ± 503 vs 1564 ± 504 m) and in elite senior female players, Yo‐Yo IE2 test performance increased by 14% (P < 0.01) after completing 4 weeks of intense training prior to the FIFA Women's World Cup Finals (2049 ± 283 vs 1803 ± 342 m). The data demonstrate that the Yo‐Yo IE2 test is reproducible and is an indicator of the match‐specific physical capacity of female soccer players. Furthermore, the Yo‐Yo IE2 test illustrates sensitivity by differentiating intermittent exercise performance of female players in various competitive levels, stages of the season and playing positions.     

Effects of basketball-specific high-intensity interval training on aerobic performance and physical capacities in youth female basketball players

Objective: The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of a 5-week, basketball-specific high-intensity interval training (HIIT) on aerobic performance in youth female basketball players.

Methods: Twenty-four athletes (age 15.1 ± 1.1 years; height: 170 ± 5.2 cm; body mass: 60.9 ± 6.0 kg) took part in the investigation. The training group (TG, n = 11) integrated 10 basketball-specific HIIT sessions in their normal team training, the other group (n = 13) continued their team training routine and served as controls (CG). All HIIT sessions contained different basketball-specific drills. Before (pre-) and after the training period (post-) physical fitness was tested.

Results: The Yo-yo intermittent recovery test (Yo-yo IR) performance was very likely increased in the TG (26,5 %). No improvements in the Yo-Yo IR performance were found in the CG (?6,8%). Likely positive effects in the TG were evident for the sprint and agility tests with (1.2 ± 2.4%, ES: 0.25, p = 0.29) and without ball (1.5 ± 4.6%, ES: 0.34, p = 0.20). The sprint and agility performance with ball significantly decreased in the CG by ?2.8 ± 4.7% (ES: 0.49, p < 0.01). No differences between the groups were found for counter movement jump with arm swing (TG: ES = 0.14, p = 0.45, CG: ES = 0.20 p = 0.18), counter movement jump (TG: ES = 0.05, p = 0.70, CG: ES = 0.19, p = 0.10), squat jump (TG: ES = 0.06, p = 0.72, CG: ES = 0.10, p = 0.54) and long jump (TG: ES = 0.00, p = 0.82, CG: ES = 0.00, p = 0.81).

Conclusion: A 5-week, basketball-specific HIIT improves the aerobic performance in young female basketball athletes.     

Test–retest reliability of the Aerobic Power Index submaximal exercise test in an obese population

Many overweight and obese individuals have difficulty in performing aerobic fitness tests that require maximal exertion. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the reliability of the Aerobic Power Index (API) submaximal aerobic exercise test, as well as associated variables consisting of oxygen uptake (mlkg(-1)min(-1)) and ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in an obese population. Twenty-two obese subjects (3 males and 19 females) aged between 36 and 68 years (mean=45.7+/-9.8 years), with BMI's ranging between 30.45 and 39.18kgm(-2) (mean=33.63+/-2.6), participated in two trials that was performed on the same weekday at the same time, but 1 week apart. Intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) scores for power output (Wkg(-1)) and oxygen uptake O(2) (mlkg(-1)min(-1)) were highly reliable (R(1)=0.95 and 0.96, respectively), while the ICC score for RPE was moderately reliable (R(1)=0.88). Technical error of measurement results for power output (Wkg(-1)), O(2) (mlkg(-1)min(-1)), and RPE were 0.07Wkg(-1), 0.71mlkg(-1)min(-1), and 0.92, respectively. Additionally, a Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient demonstrated a strong relationship between power output (Wkg(-1)) and O(2) (mlkg(-1)min(-1)) for trial 1 (r=0.90) and for trial 2 (r=0.89). Results from this study demonstrated that the API submaximal aerobic exercise test is a highly reliable protocol for use in an obese population, and can be considered as an alternative exercise test to other submaximal cycle tests.     

The use of continuous vs. intermittent cold water immersion as a recovery method in basketball players after training: a randomized controlled trial

Objectives: The main objective of this study was to compare two cold water immersion protocols, continuous or intermittent, on recovery in basketball players.

Methods: Ten male basketball players (age: 14 ± 0.4 years, body mass: 65.4 ± 9.1 kg, height: 175 ± 7.3 cm, body fat %: 10.3 ± 4) were included in the study. After three 90-minute training sessions (avg. heart rate 158 ± 11.92, 156 ± 7.06 and 151 ± 10.44 bpm), participants were grouped into a continuous immersion (12 min at 12 ± 0.4°C) group, intermittent immersion (4 x 2 min immersion at 12 ± 0.4 °C + 1 min out of water) group and a control group (CG). Countermovement jump (CMJ), muscle pain and thigh volume were measured.

Results: Both cold water immersion protocols were effective in reducing the pain 24 and 48 hours after training compared with the CG (F (3.54) = 2.91, p = 0.016, η_p² = .24). Concerning CMJ change, % differences occurred at 24 (Z = 11.04, p = 0.004) and 48 hours (Z = 14.01, p < 0.001) in comparison with the CG. Regarding the muscle volume, the statistical analysis did not report a significant interaction (F (3.54) = 2.42, p = 0.058).

Conclusion: Both cold water immersion CWI protocols are effective in improving recovery in basketball players.     

Determination and validation of peak fat oxidation in endurance‐trained men using an upper body graded exercise test

Peak fat oxidation rate (PFO) and the intensity that elicits PFO (Fat_max) are commonly determined by a validated graded exercise test (GE) on a cycling ergometer with indirect calorimetry. However, for upper body exercise fat oxidation rates are not well elucidated and no protocol has been validated. Thus, our aim was to test validity and inter‐method reliability for determination of PFO and Fat_max in trained men using a GE protocol applying double poling on a ski‐ergometer. PFO and Fat_max were assessed during two identical GE tests (GE1 and GE2) and validated against separated short continuous exercise bouts (SCE) at 35%, 50%, and 65% of V?O_2peak on the ski‐ergometer in 10 endurance‐trained men (V?O_2peak: 65.1 ± 1.0 mL·min^?1·kg^?1, mean ± SEM). Between GE tests no differences were found in PFO (GE1: 0.42 ± 0.03; GE2: 0.45 ± 0.03 g·min^?1, P = .256) or Fat_max (GE1: 41 ± 2%; GE2: 43 ± 3% of V?O_2peak, P = .457) and the intra‐individual coefficient of variation (CV) was 8 ± 2% and 11 ± 2% for PFO and Fat_max, respectively. Between GE and SCE tests, PFO (GE_avg: 0.44 ± 0.03; SCE; 0.47 ± 0.06 g·min^?1, P = .510) was not different, whereas a difference in Fat_max (GE_avg: 42 ± 2%; SCE: 52 ± 4% of V?O_2peak, P = .030) was observed with a CV of 17 ± 4% and 15 ± 4% for PFO and Fat_max, respectively. In conclusion, GE has a high day‐to‐day reliability in determination of PFO and Fat_max in trained men, whereas it is unclear if PFO and Fat_max determined by GE reflect continuous exercise in general.     

The standing knee lift test is not a useful screening tool for time loss from low back pain in youth basketball and floorball players

ObjectivesThe aim of this study was to investigate the association between pelvic kinematics during the standing knee lift (SKL) test and low back pain (LBP) in youth floorball and basketball players.DesignA prospective cohort study.SettingFinnish elite youth floorball and basketball players.ParticipantsFinnish elite youth female and male floorball and basketball players (n = 258, mean age 15.7 ± 1.8).Main outcome measuresLBP resulting in time loss from practice and games was recorded over a 12-month period and verified by a study physician. Associations between LBP and sagittal plane pelvic tilt and frontal plane pelvic obliquity during the SKL test as measured at baseline were investigated. Individual training and game hours were recorded, and Cox’s proportional hazard models with mixed effects were used for the analysis.ResultsCox analyses revealed that sagittal plane pelvic tilt and frontal plane pelvic obliquity were not associated with LBP in floorball and basketball players during the follow-up. The hazard ratios for pelvic tilt and pelvic obliquity ranged between 0.93 and 1.08 (95% CIs between 0.91 and 1.07 and 0.83 and 1.29), respectively.ConclusionsPelvic movement during the SKL test is not associated with future LBP in youth floorball and basketball players.     

The machine body metaphor: From science and technology to physical education and sport,in France (1825–1935)

The long history of the conception of physical exercise in France may be viewed as a function of a series of changes in understanding the body. Scientific concepts were used to present the body in official texts by authors specializing in the subject, or to describe them, as did Michel Foucault, as epistemic ¹ changes. A departure occurred during the 19th century that is clearly demonstrated in the writings of Gustave Adolphe Hirn. This breakthrough concerned the idea of considering the organism as an energy‐generating machine. This metaphor was employed in describing the body during physical exercise from the 17th to the 19th centuries, when the body was thought of as mechanical ² . Such metaphors were used by the most relevant figures writing at the end of the 19th century in the rationale that is examined in this paper. It shows how Hirn, Marey, Lagrange, Demenij, Hebert, and Tissié saw the body and how they employed machine metaphors when referring to it. These machine metaphors are analyzed from the time of their scientific and technological origins up to their current use in physical and sports education. This analysis will contribute to the understanding of how a scientific metaphor comes to be in common use and may lead to particular exercise practices.