Utility of endoscopic ultrasound in pancreatitis： A review

The close proximity of the endoscopic ultrasound probe to the pancreas results in superior spatial resolution compared to CT scan and MRI. In addition, endoscopic ultrasound （EUS） is a minimally invasive procedure that does not share the relatively high complication rate of ERCP. Due to these advantages, EUS has evolved into an important technique to assess pancreatobiliary disease. This review will discuss the role of EUS in patients with pancreatitis. The indications can be divided into acute pancreatitis and chronic pancreatitis. In acute pancreatitis, EUS is used to determine the etiology; in suspected chronic pancreatitis it is helpful to establish the diagnosis. Lastly, this review will discuss biliary pancreatitis with suspicion for persistent choledocholithiasis.     

Etiology of chronic pancreatitis： Has it changed in the last decade？

The evidence from recent surveys on chronic pancreatitis carried out around the world shows that alcohol remains the main factor associated with chronic pancreatitis, even if at a frequency lower than that reported previously. It has further confirmed that heavy alcohol consumption and smoking are independent risk factors for chronic pancreatitis. Autoimmune pancreatitis accounts for 2%-4% of all forms of chronic pancreatitis, but this frequency will probably increase over the next few years. The rise in idiopathic chronic pancreatitis, especially in India, represents a black hole in recently published surveys. Despite the progress made so far regarding the possibility of establishing the hereditary forms of chronic pancreatitis and the recognition of autoimmune pancreatitis, it is possible that we are more inaccurate today than in the past in identifying the factors associated with chronic pancreatitis in our patients.     

Effects of chronic therapy with non-steroideal antinflammatory drugs on gastric permeability of sucrose： A study on 71 patients with rheumatoid arthritis

AIM: To evaluate the gastric permeability after both acute and chronic use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and to assess the clinical usefulness of sucrose test in detecting and following NSAIDs- induced gastric damage mainly in asymptomatic patients and the efficacy of a single pantoprazole dose in chronic users. METHODS: Seventy-one consecutive patients on chronic therapy with NSAIDs were enrolled in the study and divided into groups A and B (group A receiving 40 mg pantoprazole daily, group B only receiving NSAIDs). Sucrose test was performed at baseline and after 2, 4 and 12 wk, respectively. The symptoms in the upper gastrointestinal tract were recorded. RESULTS: The patients treated with pantoprazole had sucrose excretion under the limit during the entire follow-up period. The patients without gastroprotection had sucrose excretion above the limit after 2 wk, with an increasing trend in the following weeks (P = 0.000). A number of patients in this group revealed a significantly altered gastric permeability although they were asymptomatic during the follow-up period. CONCLUSION: Sucrose test can be proposed as a valid tool for the clinical evaluation of NSAIDs- induced gastric damage in both acute and chronic therapy. This technique helps to identify patients with clinically silent gastric damages. Pantoprazole (40 mg daily) is effective and well tolerated in chronic NSAID users.     

Yoga： A tool for improving the quality of life in chronic pancreatitis

AIM： To determine the effectiveness of yoga on improving the quality of life in patients of chronic pancreatitis.
METHODS： The patients were randomized to two groups. The control group continued their usual care as directed by their physicians. Patients in the yoga group, in addition, received biweekly yoga sessions for 12 wk. The patients＇ demographic and health behaviour variables were assessed before and alter the yoga programme using Medical Outcomes Short Form （SF-36） for quality of life, Profile of Mood States for assessing mood and Symptoms of Stress Inventory for measuring stress.
RESULTS： A total of 60 patients were enrolled, with 8 drop-outs.Thirty patients were randomized to the yoga group and 30 to the control group. Significant improvements were seen in overall quality of life, symptoms of stress, mood changes, alcohol dependence and appetite alter the 12 wk period apart from the general feeling of well-being and desire to continue with the programme in future in the yoga group, while there was no difference in the control group.
CONCLUSION： Yoga is effective on improving the quality of life in patients of chronic pancreatitis.     

Fractalkine and TGF-β1 levels reflect the severity of chronic pancreatitis in humans

MM： To clarify whether serum chemokine and cytokine levels can become useful biological and functional markers to assess the severity of chronic pancreatitis （CP）. This study aimed at clarifying whether serum chemokine and cytokine levels can become useful biological and functional markers to assess the severity of CR METHODS： Serum monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 （MCP-1）, transforming growth factor beta-1 （TGF-βI）, and soluble type fractalkine （s-fractalkine） concentrations were examined in patients with CP （n = 109） and healthy controls （n = 116）. Severity of disease was classified in patients with CP by a staging system. Relationships between stage-specific various clinical factors and serum MCP-1, TGF-β1, and s-fractalkine levels were investigated. Furthermore, 57 patients with non-alcoholic CP were similarly evaluated in order to exclude influence of alcohol intake. RESULTS： Patients with CP showed significant higher levels of serum TGF-β1 and s-fractalkine, but not MCP-1, compared to the controls. Serum TGF-β1 in the severe stage and s-fractalkine in the mild and thesevere stage of CP significantly increased compared to those of controls. However, it was observed that both TGF-β1 and s-fractalkine levels were affected by alcohol intake. In patients with non-alcoholic CP, serum TGF-β1 showed significant increase in the moderate stage of CP, and serum s-fractalkine revealed significant increase in the early stage of CP. CONCLUSION： It is suggested that the measurement of serum F-fractalkine is useful to diagnose early- stage CP. Moreover, the combined determination of both, s-fractalkine and TGF-β1, in human sera may be helpful in evaluating the severity status of CP.     

Prolonged intestinal mucosal acidosis is associated with multiple organ failure in human acute pancreatitis： Gastric tonometry revisited

AIM: To evaluate whether multiple determinations of intramucosal pH (pHi) in acute pancreatitis (AP) patients could provide additional information of the disease severity during early hospitalization. METHODS: Twenty-one patients suffering from acute pancreatitis were monitored by gastric tonometry in the first 72 h after hospital admission. RESULTS: In the survivor group (n = 15) the initially low pHi values returned to normal level (pHi≥7.32) within 48 h (median pHi: d 1: 7.21; d 2: 7.32; d 3: 7.33). In contrast, pHi values in the non-survivor group n = 6) were persistently either below or in the low normal range (median pHi 7.12; 7.12; 7.07 respectively), but pHi differences between the two groups reached significance only after 24 h (P < 0.01). Mucosal acidosis detected at any time during the monitored period was associated with the emergence of single or multiple organ dysfunction (P < 0.01). CONCLUSION: Prolonged gastric mucosal acidosis was associated with remote organ dysfunction and failure in Acute Pancreatitis, however, correlation with the fatal outcome became significant only 24 h after admission. Due to its non-invasive nature gastric tonometry may supplement the pro-inflammatory markers to achieve a multi-faceted monitoring of the disease.     

Prevalence of celiac disease in adult patients with refractory functional dyspepsia： Value of routine duodenal biopsy

AIM： To investigate the prevalence of celiac disease （CD） in adult patients referred to an open access gastroenterology clinic in the south of Italy and submitted to esophago-gastro-duodenoscopy （EGD） for evaluation of refractory functional dyspepsia. METHODS： Seven hundred and twenty six consecutive dyspeptic patients （282 male, 444 female; mean age 39.6 years, range 18-75 years） with unexplained prolonged dyspepsia were prospectively enrolled. Duodenal biopsies were taken and processed by standard staining. Histological evaluation was carried out according to the Marsh-Oberhuber criteria. RESULTS： The endoscopic findings were： normal in 61.2%, peptic lesions in 20.5%, malignancies in 0.5%, miscellaneous in 16.7%. CD was endoscopically diagnosed in 8 patients （1.1%）, histologically in 15 patients （2%）. The endoscopic features alone showed a sensitivity of 34.8% and specificity of 100%, with a positive predictive value （PPV） of 100% and a negative predictive value （NPP） of 97.9%. CONCLUSION： This prospective study showed that CD has a high prevalence （1：48） in adult dyspeptic patients and suggests the routine use of duodenal biopsy in this type of patient undergoing EGD.     

Pancreatic carcinoma coexisting with chronic pancreatitis versus tumor-forming pancreatitis： Diagnostic utility of the time-signal intensity curve from dynamic contrast-enhanced MR imaging

AIM： To evaluate the ability of the time-signal intensity curve （TIC） of the pancreas obtained from dynamic contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging （MRI） for differentiation of focal pancreatic masses, especially pancreatic carcinoma coexisting with chronic pancreatitis and tumor-forming pancreatitis.
METHODS： Forty-eight consecutive patients who underwent surgery for a focal pancreatic mass, including pancreatic ductal carcinoma （n = 33）, tumor-forming pancreatitis （n = 8）, and islet cell tumor （n = 7）, were reviewed. Five pancreatic carcinomas coexisted with longstanding chronic pancreatitis. The pancreatic TICs were obtained from the pancreatic mass and the pancreatic parenchyma both proximal and distal to the mass lesion in each patient, prior to surgery, and were classified into 4 types according to the time to a peak： 25 s and 1, 2, and 3 min after the bolus injection of contrast material, namely, type-Ⅰ, Ⅱ, Ⅲ, and Ⅳ, respectively, and were then compared to the corresponding histological pancreatic conditions.
RESULTS： Pancreatic carcinomas demonstrated type-Ⅲ （n = 13） or Ⅳ （n = 20） TIC. Tumor-forming pancreatitis showed type-Ⅱ （n = 5） or Ⅲ （n = 3） TIC. All islet cell tumors revealed type-Ⅰ. The type-Ⅳ TIC was only recognized in pancreatic carcinoma, and the TIC of carcinoma always depicted the slowest rise to a peak among the 3 pancreatic TICs measured in each patient, even in patients with chronic pancreatitis.CONCLUSION： Pancreatic TIC from dynamic MRI provides reliable information for distinguishing pancreatic carcinoma from other pancreatic masses, and may enable us to avoid unnecessary pancreatic surgery and delays in making a correct diagnosis of pancreatic carcinoma, especially, in patients with longstanding chronic pancreatitis.     

Autoimmune pancreatitis： A review

Autoimmune pancreatitis has emerged over the last 40 years from a proposed concept to a well established and recognized entity. As an efficient mimicker of pancreatic carcinoma, its early and appropriate recognition are crucial. With mounting understanding of its pathogenesis and natural history, significant advances have been made in the diagnosis of autoimmune pancreatitis. The characteristic laboratory features and imaging seen in autoimmune pancreatitis are reviewed along with some of the proposed diagnostic criteria and treatment algorithms.     

Decreased serum essential and aromatic amino acids in patients with chronic pancreatitis

AIM:To investigate the influence of chronic pancreatitis(CP) on serum concentrations of amino acids.METHODS:Thirty-five male patients with alcoholic CP and 21 healthy male subjects were examined.Serum concentrations of amino acids were assayed by ionpair high-performance liquid chromatography with mass detection.RESULTS:Serum glutamate concentration was increased in CP patients as compared to controls.In contrast,serum concentrations of glutamine,histidine,tyrosine,proline,tryptophan and threonine were sign...     

Follow-up of patients with pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis: Outcome and surveillance

AIM: To follow up patients with pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis (PCP) to assess their outcome and identify an optimal surveillance interval.METHODS: Data obtained prospectively were analyzed in a retrospective manner. Patients with clinical evidence of chronic pancreatitis (abdominal pain in the epigastrium, steatorrhea, and diabetes mellitus), endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) criteria > 4, and EUS-fine needle aspiration (FNA) were included. A pseudotumor was defined as a non-neoplastic space-occupying lesion, a cause of chronic pancreatitis that may mimic changes typical of pancreatic cancer on CT or endoscopic ultrasound but without histological evidence. A real tumor was defined as a neoplastic space-occupying lesion because of pancreatic cancer confirmed by histology.RESULTS: Thirty-five patients with chronic pancreatitis were included, 26 (74.2%) of whom were men. Nine (25.7%) patients were diagnosed with pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis and two (2/35; 5.7%) patients with pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis were diagnosed with pancreatic cancer on follow-up. The time between the diagnosis of pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis and pancreatic adenocarcinoma was 35 and 30 d in the two patients. Definitive diagnosis of pancreatic adenocarcinoma was made by surgery. In the remaining six patients with pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis, the median of follow-up was 11 mo (range 1-22 mo) and they showed no evidence of malignancy on surveillance. In the follow-up of patients without pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis but with chronic pancreatitis, none were diagnosed with pancreatic cancer. According to our data, older patients with chronic pancreatitis are at risk of pseudotumoral chronic pancreatitis.CONCLUSION: According to characteristics of patient, detection of PCP should lead a surveillance program for pancreatic cancer with EUS-FNA in < 1 mo or directly to surgical resection.     

慢性胰腺炎213例的临床特点

目的:回顾性分析9 a间慢性胰腺炎(CP)的临床特点．方法:对住院诊断CP 213例,按发病情况、临床表现、诊断方法及漏误诊等特点进行统计．结果:CP213例,占消化科住院患者的4．38％, 男女之比1:0．84,9 a间每3 a发病增长为 38．6％,病因:胆源性36．2％,酒精性42．7％,高血脂13．6％,原因不明7．5％;临床表现:持续腹痛仅9．9％,进食后腹痛44％,两者相加为 53．5％,而慢性腹泻或脂肪泻占57％,进高脂肪餐(包括饮酒)后腹胀或腹泻81％,吸收不良 41％,糖尿病7．0％;在诊断方面:72．3％是以临床表现、大便脂肪定性或胰腺外分泌功能试验及CT、EUS影象学特征诊断,27．7％超声内镜引导下细针穿插通过病理诊断,在漏误诊方面:33．8％长期诊断为慢性胃炎或萎缩性胃炎,30．5％诊断为慢性腹泻、肠炎或慢性结肠炎,11．3％诊断为胆系结石或胆囊术后综合症, 3．8％诊断为胰腺新生物或胰腺癌．结论:CP发病率在上升,临床表现腹痛不突出,而且多样性,应早期诊断,避免漏诊和误诊     

Zinc deficiency in patients with chronic pancreatitis

BACKGROUND Zinc is a key element in numerous proteins and plays an important role in essential cell functions such as defense against free radicals and DNA damage repair. Chronic pancreatitis(CP) is a chronic inflammation with progressive fibrosis of pancreas ultimately resulting in pancreatic exocrine insufficiency(PEI),which is associated with malnutrition. Studies analyzing zinc levels in patients with CP are sparse and lead to conflicting results.AIM To investigate serum zinc levels in patients with CP of various etiologies.METHODS Between October 2015 and March 2018, patients with a diagnosis of CP were identified and recruited from the Pancreatic Outpatient Clinic at the Karolinska University Hospital in Stockholm, Sweden. Demographic, clinical and laboratory data were analyzed. Etiology of CP was determined according to the MANNHEIM classification system into the following etiological subcategories:alcohol consumption, nicotine consumption, hereditary factors, efferent pancreatic duct factors and immunological factors. Pancreatic exocrine function was defined as normal(fecal elastase 1 > 200 μg/g), mildly reduced(100-200μg/g) and severely reduced(fecal elastase 1 < 100 μg/g).RESULTS A total of 150 patients were included in the analysis. Zinc deficiency(< 11μmol/L) was present in 39(26.0%) of patients: 22 females and 17 males. In the group of patients with zinc deficiency, 76.7% of patients had an exocrine pancreatic insufficiency(FE-1 < 200 μg/g). Older age was significantly associated with low zinc levels. Following a univariate analysis, patients aged 60-69 and patients ≥ 70 years of age had a significantly higher prevalence of zinc deficiencies compared to patients < 40 years of age [OR: 3.8, 95%CI(1.08-13.4); P= 0.04]; [OR 6.26, 95%CI(1.94-20.2), P > 0.002]. Smoking and number of packyears were additionally associated with low zinc levels. The risk of zinc deficiency in current smokers and smokers with ≥ 20 pack-years was approximately three times higher compared to those who had never smoked.Gender, body mass index, etiology of CP, presence of diabetes mellitus, levels of glycated hemoglobin(HbA1 c), bone mineral density, alcohol intake and presence of PEI were not associated with low zinc levels.CONCLUSION Zinc deficiency is common in patients with CP and is significantly associated with age ≥ 60, smoking and the number of pack-years, but not with PEI.     

Differential effect of opioids in patients with chronic pancreatitis: An experimental pain study

Objective. Animal experiments and clinical observations have indicated a different working profile of oxycodone compared to morphine, and it has previously been shown that oxycodone attenuates visceral pain better than morphine. The objective of this study was to test the effects of oxycodone and morphine on experimental pain in patients with pain caused by chronic pancreatitis. Material and methods. Ten patients took part in this blinded, cross-over study. The analgesic effects of morphine (30 mg, oral), oxycodone (15 mg, oral) and placebo were tested against multimodal (mechanical, thermal and electrical) experimental pain in the skin, muscles and oesophagus. Pain was assessed at baseline and 30, 60 and 90 min after drug administration. Results. In the skin and muscles, oxycodone was more effective than placebo and morphine on mechanically (skin: F=12.4, p<0.001, muscle: F=11.0, p<0.001) and thermally (skin: F=8.5, p<0.001) evoked pain. In oesophageal heat pain, the effect of morphine was equal to that of placebo, while oxycodone attenuated pain better than both morphine and placebo (F=9.5, p<0.001). Both morphine and oxycodone were more effective in attenuating mechanical pain in the oesophagus than placebo (F=8.6, p<0.001). After electrical stimulation no differences were seen between the opioids and placebo in any tissue studied. Conclusions. Oxycodone was a stronger analgesic than morphine in several pain modalities in the skin, muscle and oesophagus.     

慢性胰腺炎糖尿病的发生率及其风险因素分析

目的 分析慢性胰腺炎(CP)糖尿病发生率及可能风险因素.方法 分析和随访1997年1月-2007年7月疼痛性CP患者资料,寿命表法计算首次腹痛后累积糖尿病发生率,Cox比例风险模型逐步回归分析风险因素,包括年龄、性别、吸烟、饮酒、病因、胰腺肿块、胰腺钙化、治疗方案、伴腹泻、体重减轻和腹痛程度.结果 人组病例共354例,男:女=2.1:1,首发年龄(38.1±17.6)岁,随访时间(45.2±32.9)个月;酒精性CP 18.1%;总糖尿病发生率16.1%,其中需胰岛素治疗者40.3%.内镜介入和外科手术治疗前34例已确诊,治疗后新发23例;29.8%糖尿病发生于腹痛1年内;首次腹痛后1、3、5、10年内的累积糖尿病发生率分别为4.9%、6.5%、9.3%、20.7%;Cox风险比例模型回归分析显示,治疗前糖尿病组中吸烟量＞200年支(年支定义每天吸烟支数×吸烟年数)、轻度腹痛、体重减轻、胰腺钙化为风险因素,风险比分别为3.3、5.2、2.6、2.2;新发糖尿病组中,吸烟量＞200年支、持续或新发体重减轻、胰尾/体尾部切除术等因素为风险因素,风险比分别为3.0、2.8、7.3.结论 对吸烟量＞200年支、胰腺钙化、轻度腹痛、体重减轻以及接受胰尾/体尾部切除治疗的CP患者尤应注意伴发糖尿病的可能.     

Incidence and predictors of 30-day readmissions in patients hospitalized with chronic pancreatitis: A nationwide analysis

Background

Patients with chronic pancreatitis are prone to frequent readmissions. The aim of this study is to evaluate the rate and predictors of 30-day readmissions in patients with chronic pancreatitis using the Nationwide Readmission Database (NRD).

Dietary intake in patients with chronic pancreatitis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUNDA progressive reduction in the secretion of pancreatic enzymes in patients with chronic pancreatitis (CP) results in malabsorption and ultimate malnutrition. However, the pathogenesis of malnutrition is multifactorial and other factors such as chronic inflammation, alcohol excess and poor dietary intake all contribute. Patients may restrict their dietary intake due to poor appetite or to avoid gastrointestinal symptoms and abdominal pain. Whilst up to half of patients with chronic pancreatitis are reportedly malnourished, the dietary intake of patients with CP is relatively understudied and has not been systematically reviewed to date. AIMTo perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of the dietary intakes of patients with CP compared to healthy controls, and to compare the dietary intake of patients with alcohol-related CP and non-alcohol-related CP.METHODSA systematic literature search was performed using EMBASE, MEDLINE, and Cochrane review on studies published between 1946 and August 30^th, 2019. Adult subjects with a diagnosis of CP who had undergone dietary assessment were included in the systematic review (qualitative analysis). Studies on patients with other pancreatic diseases or who had undergone pancreatic surgery were not included. Studies comparing the dietary intake of patients with CP to that of healthy controls were included in the meta-analysis (quantitative analysis). Meta-analysis was performed using Review Manager 5.3. Newcastle Ottawa Scale (NOS) was used to assess quality of studies. RESULTSOf 6715 studies retrieved in the search, 23 were eligible for qualitative analysis while 12 were eligible for quantitative analysis. In the meta-analysis, the total energy (calorie) intake of patients with CP was similar to that of healthy controls [mean difference (MD): 171.3; 95% confidence interval (CI): -226.01, 568.5; P = 0.4], however patients with CP consumed significantly fewer non-alcohol calories than controls [MD: -694.1; 95%CI: -1256.1, (-132.1); P = 0.02]. CP patients consumed more protein, but carbohydrate and fat intakes did not differ significantly. Those with alcohol-related CP consumed more mean (standard deviation) calories than CP patients with a non-alcohol aetiology [2642 (1090) kcal and 1372 (394) kcal, respectively, P = 0.046], as well as more protein, fat, but not carbohydrate.CONCLUSIONAlthough patients with CP had similar calorie intake to controls, studies that analysed the contribution of alcohol to energy intake showed that patients with CP consumed fewer non-alcohol calories than healthy controls. A high calorie intake, made up to a large degree by alcohol, may in part contribute to poor nutritional status in CP.     

影像学检查在诊断慢性胰腺炎中的意义

目的　分析评价多种影像学检查在慢性胰腺炎诊断中的作用 ,有助于慢性胰腺炎的诊断。方法　回顾性总结北京协和医院 1991～ 2 0 0 0年间确诊的慢性胰腺炎患者 12 9例 ,分析体外超声 (US)、计算机X线断层摄影 (CT)、内镜逆行胰胆管造影 (ERCP)、超声内镜 (EUS)及磁共振胰胆管显影 (MR CP)在诊断慢性胰腺炎中的作用。结果　①EUS和MRCP诊断慢性胰腺炎的敏感性高 ,与ERCP的一致性较好。②ERCP的敏感性显著高于US与CT(P <0 .0 5 )。③US对胰管扩张检出的敏感性与特异性为 5 9.4 %与 93.8% ,CT分别为 6 0 .0 %与 95 .7%。④胰管病变重度组ERCP与BT PABA的一致率(87.5 % )较轻 中度组 (6 6 .7% )高。⑤慢性胰腺炎并发症越多 ,胰管病变程度越重。结论　在传统检查中 ,ERCP诊断慢性胰腺炎的敏感性最高 ;新近开展的EUS和MRCP敏感性高 ,且与ERCP有较好的一致性 ,是很有前途的检查方法     

Pharmacological management of pain in chronic pancreatitis

Pain is the major presenting symptom of chronic pancreatitis. Patients with chronic pancreatitis experience substantial impairments in health-related quality of life. Pain may be considered as the most important factor affecting the quality of life. The pathogenesis of pancreatic pain is poorly understood. The cause of pain in chronic pancreatitis is probably multifactorial. This article discusses the various hypotheses that have been suggested to underlie pain. Special attention is paid to the concept of autonomous central sensitisation and hyperalgesia as a cause of pain. Strict abstinence from alcohol is the first step of chronic pancreatic pain management. As a second step, it is important to exclude treatable complications of chronic pancreatitis, such as pseudocysts. Symptomatic treatment with analgesics is often unavoidable in patients with chronic pancreatitis. Acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and eventually opioids are suitable. Several trials have been performed with pancreatic enzymes, but a meta-analysis demonstrated no significant benefit in terms of pain relief. The treatment of chronic pancreatic pain requires a multidisciplinary approach that tailors the various therapeutic options to meet the need of the individual patient.