白细胞介素-1受体相关激酶-1基因多态性与创伤患者预后性别差异相关

目的 研究白细胞介素-1受体相关激酶-1(IRAK-1)基因多态性与创伤患者预后性别差异相关性.方法 采用前瞻性队列研究方法,分析2013年1月至12月入住上海市第六人民医院急诊重症监护室的360例成年钝性创伤患者.其中排除重症颅脑损伤及高位颈椎损伤患者,记录其余患者基本资料,观察预后结局.采用多因素Logistic回归模型分析性别因素与院内感染(NI)、多器官功能衰竭(MOF)及病死率的相关性.根据年龄、性别、体质量指数、损伤严重度及致伤机制等指标,对NI、MOF及死亡患者进行配对,分别比较NI组与非NI组、MOF组与非MOF组、死亡组与存活组之间IRAK-1基因型的差异性.结果 入选的360例患者中,IRAK-1 C/C基因型患者268例(74.4％),其中男性患者C/C基因型比例高达82.3％.控制混杂因素,男性患者MOF的发生率约是女性的4倍(0R=3.855,95％CI:1.329～11.181,P=0.013),病死率约是女性的6倍(OR=5.742,95％CI:1.429 ～23.066,P=0.014),但在NI的发生率上男女性别差异无统计学意义(OR =2.117,95％ CI:0.932 ～4.807,P=0.073).将NI、MOF及死亡患者分别配对比较,MOF组(P=0.014)及死亡组(P =0.008)患者中IRAK-1 C/C基因型比例显著增高,而NI组差异无统计学意义(P=0.418).结论 创伤患者预后存在性别差异,女性患者发生MOF与死亡的风险显著低于男性患者.而男性患者中IRAK-1 C/C基因型占极大比例(82.3％),这可能是影响创伤预后性别差异的重要因素.     

天水市2012年18岁以上人群重性抑郁症现况调查

目的 了解天水市重性抑郁症的患病率、抑郁症人口学特征及社会生活功能状况.方法 于2012年采用多阶段分层整群抽样方法随机抽取≥18岁人群,共1 1350人,以《美国精神障碍诊断与统计手册》第4版轴Ⅰ障碍定式临床检查患者版进行调查,并对各类精神障碍进行诊断;采用功能大体评定量表评价功能状态.结果 本组重性抑郁症时点患病率为3.6％[95％可信区间(95％CI)为2.1％一3.5％],其中女性(4.2％)高于男性(1.3％),城市(3.1％)高于农村(2.7％),年龄≥40岁为1.7％、≥40岁为3.5％、≥55岁为3.7％.罹患抑郁症的危险因素有:年龄≥18岁(OR=2.37),≥40岁(OR=3.05),≥55岁女性(OR=3.13),农民(OR=2.14),无业和失业(OR=2.56),家庭年总收入≤5 000元(OR=2.98).重性抑郁症患者功能评定量表总分为(56.98士12.37)分.结论 天水市重性抑郁症患病率较高,且女性患病率高于男性,城市高于农村,年龄越大患病率越高;罹患抑郁症的危险因素较多,抑郁程度越严重,社会生活功能状况越差.     

严重创伤患者中急性创伤性凝血病与深静脉血栓形成关系探讨

目的 研究创伤患者下肢深静脉血栓(DVT)形成的危险因素,并探讨急性创伤性凝血病(ATC)与DVT形成的关系.方法 回顾性收集上海交通大学附属第六人民医院急性创伤急救中心EICU 2014年1月至12月收治的创伤患者资料,记录年龄、性别、体质量指数、创伤严重度评分(ISS)、创伤机制、损伤部位、入院时国际标准化比率(INR)、DVT发生率等指标.根据INR将患者分为凝血病组和非凝血病组(对照组),比较两组间DVT的发生率.结果 入选创伤患者200例,60例(30％)患者出现ATC,87例(43.5％)患者发生DVT.凝血病组DVT发生率显著高于非凝血病组(71.7％ vs.31.4％,P＜0.01).Logistic回归分析结果显示凝血病组DVT发生率是非凝血病组的5.74倍(OR=5.74,95％ CI:2.80 ～ 11.74,P＜0.01).在次危重(9≤ISS＜ 16)患者中,凝血病组DVT发生率的增加更加显著(OR=9.80,95％ CI:2.09～45.90,P=0.004).同时脊髓损伤(OR=4.96,95％ CI:1.17～ 20.95,P=0.029)和下肢长骨骨折(OR=4.80,95％ CI:1.70～13.5,P=0.003)是下肢DVT形成的独立危险因素.结论 伤后24 h内收住EICU的严重创伤患者,ATC的发病率较高.伴有ATC的创伤患者下肢DVT的发病率显著增加,尤其在次危重组(9≤ISS＜ 16)患者中更为明显.同时脊髓损伤和下肢长骨骨折是下肢DVT形成的独立危险因素.     

心脏再同步治疗起搏器与心脏再同步治疗除颤器对心力衰竭患者预后影响的荟萃分析

目的 比较心脏再同步治疗起搏器(cardiac resynchronization therapy,CRT)与心脏再同步治疗除颤器(cardiac resynchronization therapy -defibrillator,CRT-D)对心力衰竭患者预后的影响.方法 通过计算机和手工检索MEDLINE、Cochrane临床试验中心登记库、EMBASE和中国万方、中国知网(CNKI)数据库,收集1990年1月1日至2011年9月30日CRT与CRT-D对心力衰竭患者生存疗效影响的随机对照研究、前瞻观察性研究和病例对照研究.按纳入标准与排除标准选择文献,提取资料,采用RevMan 5.0软件对患者全因病死率、心脏猝死率和心衰病死率数据进行荟萃分析.结果 共纳入7项研究3404例患者,结果提示CRT-D组全因病死率低于CRT组(OR =0.61,95％ CI:0.47～0.79,P=0.01),亚组分析显示随访时间≤1年差异无统计学意义(OR =0.76,95％ CI:0.54 ～ 1.06,P=0.11),随访时间＞1年差异有统计学意义(OR=0.56,95％ CI:0.41～0.77,P=0.0004).CRT-D组心源性猝死(OR=0.20,95％ CI:0.07～0.59,P=0.003)和心衰病死(OR =0.72,95％ CI:0.54～0.96,P=0.02)也分别低于CRT组.结论 CRT-D对心力衰竭患者的预后可能优于CRT.     

查尔森合并症指数预测基础疾病对肺炎患者预后的影响

目的 应用查尔森合并症指数(Charlson's weighted index of comorbidities,WIC)评价基础疾病对ICU肺部感染患者28 d死亡风险的影响.方法 回顾性分析上海长征医院2010年10月至2012年2月的160例肺部感染患者,临床资料包括年龄、性别、社区获得性肺炎(CAP)或者院内获得性肺炎(HAP)、基础疾病、是否发生急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)、是否严重脓毒症和28 d病死率;入院24h内计算WIC评分、急性生理与慢性健康状况(APACHE)Ⅱ评分和脓毒症相关性器官功能衰竭评分(sepsis related organ failure assessment,SOFA)评分.用Logistic回归分析影响患者预后的因素,绘制受试者工作曲线(ROC)比较各评分对预后的判断.结果 在160例入组患者中,CAP患者76例(48.8％),HAP患者82例(51.2％),男性106例(66.3％),女性54例(33.7％),存活99例(61.9％),死亡61例(38.1％).年龄(62.4±17.3)岁.与存活组比较,死亡组的WIC分值、APACHEⅡ分值和SOFA评分较高(P＜0.05).多因素Logistic回归分析提示,年龄(OR=1.049,95％ CI:1.011～1.088,P=0.011)、WIC评分(OR＝1.725,95％CI:1.194～2.492,P=0.004)、APACHEⅡ评分(OR=1.175,95％CI:1.058 ～ 1.305,P＝0.003)、SOFA评分(OR=1.277,95％ CI:1.048～1.556,P=O.015)、是否ARDS(OR＝0.081,95％ CI:0.008 ～0.829,P=0.034)、是否严重脓毒症(OR=0.149,95％ CI:0.232～0.622,P＝0.004)与肺部感染患者28 d预后相关.WIC评分、APACHEⅡ评分、SOFA评分及三者合并后预测概率的受试者工作曲线(ROC)曲线下面积(95％CI)依次为0.639(0.547～0.730)、0.782(0.709～0.856)、0.79 (0.714 ～0.866)、0.842 (0.777～0.907).结论 WIC评分系统可以较好的评价基础疾病对ICU肺部感染患者28 d预后的影响.     

XRCC3基因Thr241Met(rs861539)位点单核苷酸多态性与鼻咽癌的相关性

目的:研究XRCC3基因Thr241Met (C/T,rs861539)位点多态性与广东鼻咽癌的相关性.方法:应用PCR方法对127例广州鼻咽癌患者和117例健康对照人群的DNA标本rs861539位点进行扩增、纯化及测序,再结合人群临床资料进行统计学分析.结果:rs861539 C＞T,其中杂合型C/T基因型频率在对照组中分布较高(OR=0.473,95％ CI=0.244～ 0.917,P＜0.05);经年龄及性别分层分析,杂合子在年龄≤30岁(OR＝0.071,95％ CI=0.007～0.722,P＜0.05)以及男性(OR=0.469,95％ CI=0.232～0.947,P＜0.05)人群中在对照组分布较高;而在年龄＞ 30岁以及女性人群中两组间分布均无统计学差异.纯和突变型T/T基因型在两组间分布差异无显著性(OR=1e9,95％ CI=0～∞,P＞0.05),经年龄及性别分层分析,在两组间仍无统计学差异.结论:XRCC3基因Thr241Met (C/T,rs861539)基因多态性可能与鼻咽癌易感性无显著相关性.     

甲状腺结节伴乳头状癌临床特征及恶性风险因素分析

目的 探讨甲状腺结节伴乳头状癌(papillary thyroid cancinoma,PTC)的临床特征和危险征象.方法 409例首次行甲状腺结节手术患者,经组织病理确诊PTC 175例(PTC组),甲状腺良性结节234例(良性组),回顾性分析2组临床资料,比较甲状腺超声及甲状腺血清学特点,logistic回归分析PTC的独立危险征象.结果 PTC组中位年龄(44岁)低于良性组(51岁)(P＜0.01);甲状腺超声显示PTC组2个结节(17.7％)、实性结节(61.7％)、结节直径≤2 cm(72.6％)、低回声(61.7％)、边界不清(43.4％)、形态不规则(59.4％)及微小钙化率(62.8％)高于良性组(8.1％、50.4％、42.3％、41.5％、17.9％、18.8％、22.2％)(P＜0.05);PTC组抗甲状腺球蛋白抗体(3.6(0.0,596.0) u/mL)高于良性组(3.0(0.0,423.0) u/mL)(P＜0.05);年龄≤40岁(OR=0.969,95％CI:0.951～0.987,P=0.001)、结节形态不规则(OR=4.176,95％CI:2.572～6.780,P=0.000)、微小钙化(OR=2.487,95％CI:1.528～4.049,P=0.000)、结节数目(OR=1.403,95％CI:1.035～1.90l,P=0.029)及结节直径(OR=0.702,95％CI:0.579～0.852,P=0.000)是PTC的独立危险征象.结论 PTC好发于40岁以下患者,超声声像中结节形态不规则、微小钙化、结节直径有助于术前判断PTC.     

右心室舒张末期内径对慢性心力衰竭患者预后的影响

目的 探讨右心室舒张末期内径(RVDD)对慢性心力衰竭(CHF)患者预后的影响.方法 回顾性分析我院2005年1月1日至2010年5月31日因CHF住院患者的临床资料,对所有入选患者电话随访.根据患者预后分为存活组和死亡组,通过组间单因素比较及多因素Logistic回归分析等方法评价各因素与CHF患者死亡的相关性.结果 共1552例患者纳入本次研究,平均年龄(64.62±10.45)岁,男性879例(56.64％),平均随访3年,存活组和死亡组分别为1113例(71.71％)和439例(28.29％).2组组间基线资料比较发现性别、年龄、收缩压(SBP)、心功能分级、肌酐、左心室射血分数(LVEF)、左心室舒张末期内径(LVDD)及RVDD差异有统计学意义,此8项指标经多因素Logistic回归分析结果显示RVDD(OR=1.11,95％ CI 1.07～1.14,P＜0.01)、年龄(OR=1.03,95％CI1.02 ～ 1.05,P＜0.01)、肌酐(OR=1.03,95％CI 1.01 ～1.06,P＜0.01)、LVEF(OR=0.93,95％cI0.92～0.97,P＜0.01)、LVDD(OR=1.13,95％CI 1.09 ～I.17,P＜0.01)以及心功能分级(OR=1.17,95％CI 1.12 ～1.24,P＜0.01)与CHF患者死亡相关.通过ROC曲线检验RVDD的预测效能,计算曲线下面积(ROC)为0.805(95％CI0.798 ～0.812,P＜0.01).结论 RVDD增大将增加CHF患者死亡风险.RVDD可作为CHF患者死亡的独立预测因素.     

环氧化酶2蛋白与食管癌关系的系统评价

目的 系统评价环氧化酶2(cyclooxygenase-2,Cox-2)表达水平与食管癌的关系.方法 计算机检索Cochrane Libtary(2011年第1期),PubMed、CNKI等数据库,并辅以手工检索,按照纳入与排除标准选择病例对照试验.评价质量及提取资料后,采用STATA11.0软件对所收集的数据进行系统评价.结果 共纳入18个研究,其中食管癌患者1 471例,正常对照551例.Meta分析结果显示:Cox-2在食管癌组及正常对照组的表达差异具有统计学意义[比值比(odds ratio,OR) =24.59,95％可信区间(confidence interval,CI) =8.64～70.02,P＜0.05].临床病理结果显示:Cox-2在食管癌侵及纤维膜与未侵及纤维膜(OR =3.46,95％CI=1.74～6.89),淋巴结转移组与非淋巴结转移组(OR=2.04,95％ CI =1.12～3.72)的表达差异均具有统计学意义(P＜0.05).Cox-2在食管癌男性组与女性组(OR =1.13,95％ CI =0.81～1.58),年龄＜60岁组与≥60岁组(OR =1.06,95％CI =0.68～1.65),肿瘤直径＜5 cm与≥5 cm(OR=1.52,95％CI=0.90～2.57),中上段与下段(OR =0.63,95％CI=0.36～1.09),低分化与中高分化(OR =0.49,95％CI=0.23～1.08),T3～T4期与T1～T2期(OR =2.30,95％CI =0.96～5.52),Ⅲ～Ⅳ期与Ⅰ～Ⅱ期(OR =1.25,95％ CI =0.64～2.44)的表达差异均无统计学意义(P＞0.05).结论 Cox-2在食管癌中高表达,并且其高表达增了食管癌纤维膜浸润、淋巴结转移的危险性.     

查尔森合并症指数评分系统评价基础疾病对危重患者预后的影响

目的 探讨查尔森合并症指数(WIC)评分系统评价基础疾病对于重症监护病房(ICU)危重患者28 d死亡风险的影响.方法 单中心、回顾性分析上海长征医院2009年1月至2011年10月ICU 406例危重病患者的临床信息,按照28 d治疗转归分为死亡组(104例)和存活组(302例);记录一般临床资料;计算入院时WIC评分和入院24h急性生理学与慢性健康状况评分系统Ⅱ(APACHEⅡ)评分.采用logistic回归分析影响患者预后的因素.结果 与存活组比较,死亡组患者年龄、WIC评分、APACHEⅡ评分、严重脓毒症的比例及主要致病因素如肺部感染的比例均较高,多发伤的比例较低.单因素分析显示,年龄、WIC评分、APACHEⅡ评分、肺部感染、多发伤、严重脓毒症与患者28 d预后相关.多因素logistic回归分析提示,WIC评分[优势比(OR)=1.538,95％可信区间(95％CI)为1.265 ～ 1.869,P=0.000]、APACHEⅡ评分(OR=1.193,95％CI为1.137～1.252,P=0.000)、肺部感染(OR=0.546,95％CI为0.304～0.982,P=0.043)、严重脓毒症(OR=0.178,95％CI为0.098 ～ 0.323,P=0.000)与患者28 d预后独立相关.WIC评分、APACHEⅡ评分及二者合并后预测预后的受试者工作特征曲线(ROC曲线)下面积[AUC(95％CI)]依次为0.657 (0.592～ 0.722)、0.790(0.739 ～ 0.841)、0.821(0.772 ～ 0.869).结论 WIC评分系统可以较好地评价ICU危重患者的28 d预后.     

Determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum using immunological inhibition of creatine kinase M subunit activity. Activity kinetics and diagnostic significance in myocardial infarction.

This is a new method for the determination of creatine kinase isoenzyme MB activity in serum. The method uses direct activity measurement of creatine kinase B subunit activity after blocking of CK-M subunit activity by inhibiting antibodies. The test takes no longer than 15 min. The method yields an intra-serial C.V. of 2.0-12.9%, and a C.V. from day to day of 5.5%. The detection limit is 3.4 U/l creatine kinase MB. In the 95 cases with proven myocardial infarction several types of creatine kinase MB activity kinetics could be determined. The percentage of creatine kinase MB of peak CK-total is 6-25%, with a mean of 11.1%. The amount of creatine kinase MB with respect to total CK activity after reinfarction is higher than the amount after initial infarction.     

Dissociable correlates of two classes of retrieval processing in prefrontal cortex

Although substantial evidence suggests that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) implements processes that are critical for accurate episodic memory judgments, the specific roles of different PFC subregions remain unclear. Here, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging to distinguish between prefrontal activity related to operations that (1) influence processing of retrieval cues based on current task demands, or (2) are involved in monitoring the outputs of retrieval. Fourteen participants studied auditory words spoken by a male or female speaker and completed memory tests in which the stimuli were unstudied foil words and studied words spoken by either the same speaker at study, or the alternate speaker. On "general" test trials, participants were to determine whether each word was studied, regardless of the voice of the speaker, whereas on "specific" test trials, participants were to additionally distinguish between studied words that were spoken in the same voice or a different voice at study. Thus, on specific test trials, participants were explicitly required to attend to voice information in order to evaluate each test item. Anterior (right BA 10), dorsolateral prefrontal (right BA 46), and inferior frontal (bilateral BA 47/12) regions were more active during specific than during general trials. Activation in anterior and dorsolateral PFC was enhanced during specific test trials even in response to unstudied items, suggesting that activation in these regions was related to the differential processing of retrieval cues in the two tasks. In contrast, differences between specific and general test trials in inferior frontal regions (bilateral BA 47/12) were seen only for studied items, suggesting a role for these regions in post-retrieval monitoring processes. Results from this study are consistent with the idea that different PFC subregions implement distinct, but complementary processes that collectively support accurate episodic memory judgments.     

俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征患者氧合的影响

目的 探讨俯卧位通气对高海拔地区肺复张术(RM)治疗无效急性呼吸窘迫综合征(ARDS)患者的治疗作用.方法 从海拔2260m的地区医院筛选RM治疗无效的41例ARDS患者[平均氧合指数( PaO2/FiO2)较RM前升高＜20％视为RM无效],依不同病因分为肺内源性ARDS组(ARDSp组)和肺外源性ARDS组(ARDSexp组),每组再按信封法随机分为俯卧位组和仰卧位组,即ARDSp俯卧位组(11例)、ARDSp仰卧位组(9例)、ARDSexp俯卧位组(10例)、ARDSexp仰卧位组(11例).在通气前及通气1、2、3、4h监测动脉血氧分压( PaO2)、PaO2/FiO2、静态顺应性(Cst)、气道阻力(Raw)的变化.结果 通气lh时,ARDSexp俯卧位组PaO2/FiO2( mm Hg,l mm Hg=0.133 kPa)即较通气前显著升高(157.4±40.6比129.3±48.7,P＜0.05),并随通气时间延长呈持续增高趋势,4h达峰值(219.1 ±41.1);且ARDSexp俯卧位组通气3h内PaO2/FiO2较其他3组显著增高,另3组间则差异无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组、ARDSexp俯卧位组通气4h时PaO2/FiO2均较相应仰卧位组显著增高(208.8±39.7比127.4±47.1,219.1±41.1比124.9±50.8,均P＜0.05).4组通气前后Cst无显著改变,各组间差异也无统计学意义.ARDSp俯卧位组通气4h时Raw(cmH2O·L-1·s-1)较通气前显著降低(6.8±1.7比10.7±1.8,P＜0.05),且明显低于其他3组;其他3组各时间点Raw组内及组间比较差异均无统计学意义.结论 俯卧位通气作为ARDS机械通气重要策略之一,可以改善RM无效高原ARDS患者的氧合,为抢救患者赢得宝贵的时间.     

Digital imaging among medical facilities

The Department of Veterans Affairs (VA) in the USA operates a network of 172 medical centres which all utilize a hospital information system (HIS) which has been developed and is currently maintained by the VA. During the past several years, an image management and communication module has been developed, installed and clinically utilized at the Washington DC and Maryland VA Medical Centres. This image management and communication system, referred to as the decentralized hospital computer program (DHCP) imaging system, is fully integrated with a commercial picture archiving and communication system (PACS). The system is utilized to capture, archive, and display all images generated within the hospital including radiology, nuclear medicine, pathology, endoscopy, bronchoscopy, and dermatology, intraoperative photographs, ECG data, and a limited number of paper documents. The ultimate goal of the project is to have all patient text and image data available at any clinical workstation to any authorized user anywhere within the network of medical centres. Clinical requirements for an imaging workstation include ease of use, rapid and reliable access to the complete set of patient information, and images which are of acceptable quality to meet the requirements of the user and the subspecialty. Patient confidentiality and data security must be safeguarded at all times. Integration of the images with the remainder of the patient's database was found to be critical to the success of the project. The experience at the Washington and Maryland facilities suggests that an imaging system that is successfully integrated with a hospital information system can provide substantial clinical and economic benefits both within and among medical centres. Clinical acceptance and utilization of the system has been excellent, particularly in diagnostic radiology where DHCP Imaging has been interfaced to a commercial PAC system. Based upon this initial experience, the VA has begun to deploy the system throughout its large network of medical centres.     

Myocardial elastography at both high temporal and spatial resolution for the detection of infarcts

Myocardial elastography is a novel method for noninvasively assessing regional myocardial function, with the advantages of high spatial and temporal resolution and high signal-to-noise ratio (SNR). In this paper, in-vivo experiments were performed in anesthetized normal and infarcted mice (one day after left anterior descending coronary artery [LAD] ligation) using a high-resolution (30 MHz) ultrasound system (Vevo 770, VisualSonics Inc., Toronto, ON, Canada). Radiofrequency (RF) signals of the left ventricle (LV) in longitudinal (long-axis) view and the associated electrocardiogram (ECG) were simultaneously acquired. Using a retrospective ECG gating technique, 2-D full field-of-view RF frames were acquired at an extremely high frame rate (8 kHz) that resulted in high-quality incremental displacement and strain estimation of the myocardium. The incremental results were further accumulated to obtain the cumulative displacements and strains. Two-dimensional and M-mode displacement images and strain images (elastograms), as well as displacement and strain profiles as a function of time, were compared between normal and infarcted mice. Incremental results clearly depicted cardiac events including LV contraction, LV relaxation and isovolumetric phases in both normal and infarcted mice, and also evidently indicated reduced motion and deformation in the infarcted myocardium. The elastograms indicated that the infarcted regions underwent thinning during systole rather than thickening, as in the normal case. The cumulative elastograms were found to have higher elastographic SNR (SNR(e)) than the incremental elastograms (e.g., 10.6 vs. 4.7 in a normal myocardium, and 6.0 vs. 2.4 in an infarcted myocardium). Finally, preliminary statistical results from nine normal (m = 9) and seven infarcted (n = 7) mice indicated the capability of the cumulative strain in differentiating infracted from normal myocardia. In conclusion, myocardial elastography could provide regional strain information at simultaneously high temporal (>/=0.125 ms) and spatial ( approximately 55 microm) resolution as well as high precision ( approximately 0.05 microm displacement). This technique was thus capable of accurately characterizing normal myocardial function throughout an entire cardiac cycle, at the same high resolution, and detecting and localizing myocardial infarction in vivo.     

Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Morphine

Morphine, the most widely used mu-opioid analgesic for acute and chronic pain, is the standard against which new analgesics are measured. A thorough understanding of the pharmacokinetics of morphine is required in order to safely and effectively use this analgesic in a wide variety of patients with different levels of organ function. A MEDLINE search was conducted to identify literature published between 1966 and January 2002 relevant to the pharmacokinetics of morphine. These publications were reviewed and the literature summarized regarding unique and clinically important elements of morphine disposition relative to its parenteral administration (including intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, epidural and intrathecal administration), absorption profile (immediate release, controlled release, and sublingual/buccal, and rectal administration), distribution, and its metabolism/ excretion. Special populations, including infants, elderly, and those with renal/liver failure, have a unique morphine pharmacokinetic profile that must be taken into account in order to maximize analgesic efficacy and reduce the risk of adverse events.