Arch椎板成形系统在颈椎后路双开门手术中的应用

目的探讨Arch椎板成形系统在颈椎后路双开门手术应用中的临床疗效。方法采用颈椎后路双开门椎板扩大成形术联合Arch椎板成形系统治疗颈椎病27例。结果 27例获得随访9~30个月,平均14个月。本组术前JOA评分平均为(7.8±1.77)分,术后平均为(14.0±2.6)分,改善率为67.4%。27例椎间均达到骨性融合,至末次随访未出现再关门。结论Arch椎板成形系统应用于颈椎后路双开门手术治疗颈椎病有效安全、减压彻底、固定良好,能有效防止再关门。     

单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术在颈椎病再手术中的应用及疗效分析

目的 评价应用单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术进行颈椎病再手术的适应证及临床疗效.方法 自2003年2月至2009年6月,对15例颈椎前路融合术后症状复发或加重的患者行后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术.分析再手术的原因和疾病进展过程,采用日本骨科学会制定的JOA评分系统评估患者脊髓神经功能恢复情况,Nurick分级评价患者行走功能.结果 1例失随访,1例术后随访时间过短,未统计入本组.其余13例患者随访时间13～52个月,平均26个月.前后两次手术间隔时间为5个月～6年,平均24个月.再手术原因包括:邻近节段退变压迫颈髓2例,首次手术减压不彻底5例,后纵韧带骨化症(OPLL)误诊颈椎病4例,局限型OPLL进展2例.再手术均采用C3-6或C7后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术.13例患者JOA评分术前和末次随访时分别为10.5和13.8分(P＜0.05),平均神经功能改善率为53.0%.Nurick分级术前和随访时分别为3.1和1.9级(P＜0.05),平均改善1.2级.术后并发症包括脑脊液漏1例,颈肩部轴性痛1例,C5神经根麻痹l例.结论 对于颈椎前路融合术后减压不彻底、邻近节段退变或OPLL进展导致症状复发者采用后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术可以有效缓解脊髓压迫,改善脊髓神经功能,避免再次经前方入路引起的手术风险.     

颈前路减压融合术后两种后路再减压手术的疗效比较

对于颈前路减压融合术（anterior decompression and fusion,ADF）后需接受再次减压处理的患者,多采用颈后路椎板切除减压术和颈后路单开门或双开门椎管扩大成形术,在减压同时,又可避免经前方入路对重要结构的损伤,并保留部分颈椎活动度。但目前关于颈后路手术作为ADF后再次手术效果评价的研究极少,且尚未检索到关于两种手术效果比较的报道。     

颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术与传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术治疗颈椎病的比较研究

[目的]比较观察研究颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术与传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术治疗颈椎病的临床疗效。[方法]回顾分析32例脊髓型颈椎病患者的临床资料,按手术方式随机分为2组,其中观察组为微型钛板组16例,对照组为传统单开门组16例,对比分析两组患者手术情况、术后症状改善情况JOA评分,末次随访术后椎板开门角度,术后测量颈椎曲度(颈椎侧位X线片上C2与C7椎体后壁切线之间夹角)的改变,以及轴性症状发生率,观察手术时间、术中出血量对比情况。[结果]经术后6个月²年的随访,微型钛板固定组术后6个月JOA评分改善率为60.5%±17.0%,传统单开门组为58.2%±9.5%,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。微型钛板固定组末次随访时椎板开门角度为(42.3±3.5)°,传统单开门组为(39.5±4.1)°,两组比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。微型钛板固定组术后6个月颈椎曲度为(18.5±4.8)°,与术前(18.2±4.8)°比较差异无统计学意义(P>0.05);传统单开门组术后6个月颈椎曲度为(16.9±5.6)°,与术前(19.5±6.2)°比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);微型钛板固定组术后6个月轴性症状发生率为4/16,明显低于传统单开门组的9/16,两组比较差异有统计学意义(P<0.05);两组患者无1例出现C5神经根麻痹。[结论]颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术和传统颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大减压术均是治疗脊髓型颈椎病的有效方法,但颈后路椎管扩大减压微型钛板固定椎板成形术更有效防止单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术后再关门,减少术后轴性症状的发生率和颈椎曲度的丢失,是治疗颈椎病的一种理想手术方式。     

Centerpiece钢板在颈椎后路单开门椎管成形术中的应用

目的探讨Centerpiece钢板在多节段脊髓型颈椎病(MCSM)后路单开门椎管成形术中的应用效果。方法采用单开门椎管扩大成形术Centerpiece钢板固定治疗16例MCSM患者,手术减压C3~75个节段12例,C4~74个节段4例。常规单开门,将Centerpiece钢板板固定于门轴对侧的侧块上,另一端叉口固定在棘突根部椎板,术中保留棘突及棘上韧带的完整性,钢板支撑维持椎板的开门状态。结果患者均获得随访,时间12~36个月。术后JOA评分由术前6~12(11.38±1.40)分提高到8~16(15.87±1.20)分;患者开门轴侧均得到骨性愈合,未出现轴侧断裂及再关门现象;术后患者神经功能改善满意。结论 Centerpiece钢板在颈椎后路单开门椎管成形术中应用安全、简便,能有效维持椎板开门状态,利于神经功能恢复,近期疗效满意。     

后前路联合手术治疗严重颈椎退行性疾病

目的探讨后前路联合手术治疗严重颈椎退行性疾病的疗效和手术适应证。方法施行后前路联合手术治疗严重颈椎退行性疾病17例,其中男11例,女6例;年龄46-72岁,平均56.3岁。3例分期后前路手术,14例一期后前路手术。手术步骤为先行后路单开门椎管扩大成形术,然后一期或分期（6个月后）行前路椎管前方减压、植骨融合内固定术。结果无围手术期死亡及神经功能加重病例,术后发生脑脊液漏2例,轴性疼痛2例。术后随访13例,JOA评分由术前平均（8.3±2.28）分增至术后平均（13.1±1.27）分,手术前后评分差异显著（t=11.5,P〈0.01）,脊髓功能改善率为66.5%。结论一期后前路联合手术疗效满意。该手术方式减压充分,可降低单纯前路手术脊髓损伤的风险和减少单纯后路手术后C5神经根麻痹的发生率,适用于全身情况较好、多节段颈椎病变伴脊髓前方局部受压严重的患者。     

ARCH钛板应用于颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术的近期疗效

目的探讨ARCH钛板应用于颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术治疗颈椎疾病的近期疗效。方法应用ARCH钛板行颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术治疗15例颈椎疾病患者,观察术后神经功能改善情况及颈椎轴性症状,并进行JOA评分。结果患者均获得随访,时间6~18个月。患者术后神经功能明显改善,JOA评分由术前(8.6±2.3)分提高到末次随访时(14.0±3.1)分,平均改善率68.2%±13.5%。2例术后发生颈部轴性症状,VAS评分分别为3分和2分。患者骨性愈合时间3~5个月,随访期间未见内固定物松动、椎板塌陷和再关门现象。患者均未出现颈椎后凸畸形。结论应用ARCH钛板固定行颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术治疗颈椎疾病操作简单,固定牢靠,有效降低相应并发症,可获得近期满意疗效。     

一次后路手术治疗颈椎管狭窄并颈间盘突出

目的 介绍一种一次性后路手术治疗颈椎管狭窄合并颈椎间盘突出的手术方法。方法 从１９９３年１月￣１９９８年１２月我院采用后路一次单开门椎板成形、椎管扩大同时行脊髓侧前方减压摘除颈间盘共２９例。结果 随访平均２０个月,优良２５便,优良率８６％。结论 经后路一次性手术单开门椎板成形另脊髓侧前方减压可治疗盘突出合并广泛椎管两个病变,方法可行。     

后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术联合Neulen钛板内固定治疗多节段脊髓型颈椎病

目的探讨后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术联合Neulen钛板内固定治疗多节段脊髓型颈椎病(MCSM)的临床疗效。方法 2012年7月—2016年7月,61例MCSM患者在上海交通大学医学院附属第六人民医院接受后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术联合Neulen钛板内固定治疗。记录出血量、手术时间、日本骨科学会(JOA)评分、神经功能改善率、颈椎椎管矢状径、椎管扩大率、门轴侧骨愈合情况、颈椎轴性症状及围手术期并发症发生情况。结果所有手术均顺利完成,手术时间为(112.4±22.8)min,出血量为(322.8±92.8)mL。61例患者随访(3.4±1.9)年,JOA评分由术前的(9.8±2.8)分提高到末次随访时的(15.2±1.9)分;末次随访时神经功能改善率为(75.3±9.7)%;末次随访时轴性症状评分为(3.2±1.5)分,优35例、良25例、可1例。颈椎椎管矢状径由术前的(8.5±1.4)mm扩大到术后的(15.1±2.3)mm,椎管扩大率为(77.6±6.8)%;所有患者门轴侧椎板均骨愈合,无内固定断裂、松动及再关门现象发生。结论后路单开门椎管扩大椎板成形术联合Neulen钛板内固定治疗MCSM,可获得满意的临床疗效,具有即刻稳定开门椎板,有利于门轴侧椎板融合,维持椎管扩张状态,防止再关门现象发生等优点。     

颈椎后纵韧带骨化症后路手术并发C_5神经根麻痹的临床观察

目的探讨颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术与颈椎后路椎板切除减压椎弓根钉内固定术治疗颈椎后纵韧带骨化症并发C_5神经根麻痹的影响因素,并总结预防和治疗经验。方法回顾性分析自2011-06—2014-06诊治的83例颈椎后纵韧带骨化症,43例行颈后路单开门椎管扩大微型钛板成形术(A组),40例行颈后路椎板切除减压椎弓根钉内固定术(B组)。比较2组术前及末次随访时JOA评分,以及C_5神经根麻痹发生率。结果术后1~3 d内共出现8例(9.6%)C_5神经根麻痹,其中A组出现2例(4.7%),B组出现6例(15.0%);A组术后C_5神经根麻痹发生率低于B组,差异有统计学意义(P 0.05)。8例C_5神经根麻痹患者采用甘露醇脱水及地塞米松治疗,进行积极功能锻炼,症状得到缓解;2例遗留肩部疼痛及关节活动受限,在全身麻醉下行肩关节松解术。2组末次随访时JOA评分较术前明显提高,差异有统计学意义(P 0.05)。结论颈椎后路单开门椎管扩大成形术和椎板切除减压椎弓根钉内固定术治疗颈椎后纵韧带骨化症均能获得有效的神经功能恢复,但颈椎后路椎板切除减压椎弓根钉内固定术后并发C_5神经根麻痹的概率更高,因此需在围手术期进行合理预防和治疗以降低术后C_5神经根麻痹的发生率及其严重程度。     

Vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction during major abdominal surgery

Background : We investigated the vasopressor hormone response following mesenteric traction (MT) with hypotension due to prostacyclin (PGI₂) release in patients undergoing abdominal surgery with a combined general and epidural anesthesia. Methods : In a prospective, randomized, placebo-controlled study we administered 400 mg ibuprofen (i.v.) in 42 patients scheduled for abdominal surgery. General anesthesia was combined with epidural anesthesia (T4-L1). Before as well as 5, 15, 30, 45, and 90 min after MT we recorded plasma osmolality, hemodynamics and measured 6-keto-PGFlα (stabile metabolite of PGI₂), TXB₂ (stabile metabolite of thromboxane A₂) active renin, and arginine vasopressin (AVP) plasma concentrations by radioimmunoassay. Catecholamine levels were assessed by high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection. Results : Following MT, arterial hypotension occurred along with a substantial PGI₂ release. This was completely abolished by ibuprofen administration. Although plasma levels of 6-keto-PGF_1α (1133 (708) vs. 60 (3) ng/L, median (median absolute deviation), P=0.0001, placebo vs. ibuprofen) remained significantly elevated, blood pressure was restored within 30 min after MT in the placebo group. At the same point in time plasma concentrations of TXB² (164 (87) vs. 58 (1) ng/L, P=0.0001), epinephrine (46 (33) vs. 14 (6) ng/L, P=0.001), AVP (41 ± (18) vs. 12 (7) ng/L, P=0.0004), and active renin (27 (12) vs. 12 (4) ng/L, P = 0.001) were significantly higher in placebo-treated patients. Conclusion : Under combined general and epidural anesthesia arterial hypotension following MT due to endogenous PGI₂ release is associated with enhanced release of AVP, active renin, epinephrine and thromboxane A₂, presumably contributing to hemodynamic stability within 30 min after MT.     

A Teaspoon Pump for Pumping Blood with High Hydraulic Efficiency and Low Hemolysis Potential

Abstract: Virtually all blood pumps contain some kind of rubbing, sliding, closely moving machinery surfaces that are exposed to the blood being pumped. These valves, internal bearings, magnetic bearing position sensors, and shaft seals cause most of the problems with blood pumps. The original teaspoon pump design prevented the rubbing, sliding machinery surfaces from contacting the blood. However, the hydraulic efficiency was low because the blood was able to "slip around" the rotating impeller so that the blood itself never rotated fast enough to develop adequate pressure. An improved teaspoon blood pump has been designed and tested and has shown acceptable hydraulic performance and low hemolysis potential. The new pump uses a nonrotating "swinging" hose as the pump impeller. The fluid enters the pump through the center of the swinging hose; therefore, there can be no fluid slip between the revolving blood and the revolving impeller. The new pump uses an impeller that is comparable to a flexible garden hose. If the free end of the hose were swung around in a circle like half of a jump rope, the fluid inside the hose would rotate and develop pressure even though the hose impeller itself did not "rotate"; therefore, no rotating shaft seal or internal bearings are required.     

A comparison of the inhibitory effects of four volatile anaesthetics on the metabolism of chlorzoxazone, a substrate for CYP2E1, in rabbits

Background: Halothane inhibits in vitro and in vivo activity of cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2E1. There are several fluorinated volatile anaesthetics besides halothane, and most of them are defluorinated by CYP2E1. It is unclear whether other fluorinated anaesthetics inhibit the in vivo activity of CYP2E1.
Methods: We compared the inhibitory effects of therapeutic concentrations of four inhalational anaesthetics, halothane, enflurane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane, on chlorzoxazone metabolism in rabbits receiving artificial ventilation.
Results: All four inhalational anaesthetics decreased arterial blood pressure and increased plasma chlorzoxazone concentration. However, no significant differences in the plasma chlorzoxazone concentration were found between the four anaesthetics. The estimated chlorzoxazone clearance increased after beginning inhalation with all four agents, but no significant difference in clearance was noted between agents.
Conclusions: At therapeutic concentrations, the in vivo inhibitory effect on chlorzoxazone metabolism was similar for all four inhalational anaesthetics examined, even though their chemical characteristics and extent of hepatic metabolism differ considerably.     

Microspheres Based Detoxification System: A New Method in Convective Blood Purification

Abstract: A variety of protein-bound or hydrophobic substances, accumulating as a result of pathologic conditions such as exogenous or endogenous intoxications, are removed poorly by conventional detoxification methods because of low accessibility (hemodialysis), insufficient adsorption capabilities (hemosorption), low efficiency (peritoneal dialysis), or economic limitations (high-volume plasmapheresis). Combining advantages of existing methods with microspheric technology, a module-based system was designed. Major operating parameters of the latter can be modified to allow for adjustment to individual clinical situations. An extracorporeal blood circuit including a plasmafilter is combined with a secondary high-velocity plasma circuit driven by a centrifugal pump. Different microspheric adsorbers can be combined in one circuit or applied in sequence. Thus, a prolonged treatment can be tailored using specially designed selective adsorber materials. Comparing this system with existing methods (high-flux hemodialysis, molecular adsorbent recycling system), results from our in vitro studies and animal experiments demonstrate the superior efficiency of substance removal.     

Tissue perfusion in relation to cardiac output during continuous positive-pressure ventilation and administration of propranolol or verapamil

Background : Our objective was to determine whether administration of propranolol or verapamil modifies the hemodynamic adaptation to continuous positive-pressure ventilation (CPPV), in particular the regional distribution of cardiac output (CO).
Methods : General hemodynamics and regional blood flows assessed by microsphere technique (15 (μm) were recorded in 16 anesthetized pigs during spontaneous breathing (SB) and CPPV with 8 cm H₂O end-expiratory pressure (CPPV8) before and after intravenous administration of propranolol (0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.15 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8) or verapamil (0.1 mg · kg⁻¹ followed by 0.3 mg · kg⁻¹ · h⁻¹, n=8).
Results : CPPV8 depressed CO by 25% without shifts in its relative distribution with the exception of a noteworthy increase in adrenal perfusion. Propranolol increased arterial blood pressure, and due to a fall in heart rate, CO dropped by 25%. The kidneys and, to a lesser extent, the splanchic region and central nervous system received increased fractions of the remaining CO at the expense of skeletal muscle flow. Similar patterns were seen during SB and CPPV8 such that the combination of propranolol and CPPV8 depressed CO by 50%. The circulatory effects of verapamil were less evident but myocardial perfusion tended to increase.
Conclusions : The combination of propranolol or verapamil with CPPV does not result in any specific hemodynamic interaction in anesthetized pigs, except that the combined effect of propranolol and CPPV may severely reduce CO.     

Bariatric Surgery in Some "Central and East-European (former Eastern bloc)"Countries - Current Status and Prediction for the Next Millennium

Background: Obesity is increasing globallly, including in the formerly "Eastern Bloc" countries. Methods: A survey was made of obesity and bariatric surgery. Results: In the 8 East and Central European countries studied, with total population 300 million, roughly 43% of the population was overweight (BMI 25-30), 23% obese (BMI > 30), with about 15 million people morbidly obese (BMI > 40). From 0-10 morbidly obese individuals/100,000/year undergo bariatric surgery. Conclusion: Most countries were found to provide inadequate treatment for obesity.The majority of the morbidly obese are not treated effectively. However, health-care awareness of obesity and bariatric surgeons are slowly increasing.     

Volatile anaesthetics reduce adhesion of blood platelets under low-flow conditions in the coronary system of isolated guinea pig hearts

Background : Inhibitory effects of volatile anaesthetics on platelet aggregation have been demonstrated in several studies. However, the influence of volatile anaesthetics on intracoronary platelet adhesion has not been elucidated so far.
Methods : Isolated hearts of guinea pigs were perfused with buffer in the absence or presence of volatile anaesthetics (0.5 and 1 MAC) at constant coronary flow rates of 5 ml/min for 25 min, then 1 ml/min for 30 min and again 5 ml/min for 10 min. Before, during and after low-flow perfusion, a bolus of human platelets was applied into the coronary system. To simulate thrombogenic conditions, 0.3 U/ml human thrombin was infused during low-flow perfusion and reperfusion. The number of platelets sequestered to the endothelium was calculated from the difference between coronary in- and output of platelets. The myocardial production of lactate and consumption of pyruvate and coronary perfusion pressure were also determined.
Results : At a flow rate of 5 ml/min only about 3% of the applied platelets did not emerge from the coronary system, in any group. In contrast, 13.1±1.2% (mean±SEM) of infused platelets became adherent in low-flow perfusion in the control group without anaesthetic. The adherence was reduced with each 1 MAC isoflurane (to 6.2±1.2%), sevoflurane (to 4.4±0.9%) or halothane (to 3.2±1.5%) (each P <0.05 vs. control). Volatile anaesthetic, 0.5 MAC, did not inhibit platelet adhesion to a statistically significant extent in any case. Perfusion pressure and metabolic parameters were not statistically different between the control and the hearts exposed to anaesthetics.
Conclusion : Volatile anaesthetics in a concentration of 1 MAC can reduce the adhesion of platelets in the coronary system under reduced flow conditions. This action does not arise from vasodilation or inhibition of ischaemic stress.     

Synergistic interaction between the effects of propofol and midazolam with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity in rabbits

Background: It has been shown that the depressive effects of both propofol and midazolam on consciousness are synergistic with opioids, but the nature of their interactions on other physiological systems, e. g. respiration, has not been fully investigated. The present study examined the effect of propofol and midazolam alone and in combination with fentanyl on phrenic nerve activity (PNA) and whether such interactions are additive or synergistic. Methods: PNA was recorded in 27 anaesthetised and artificially ventilated rabbits. In three groups, propofol, fentanyl and midazolam were administered intravenously in incremental doses to construct dose-response curves for the depressant effects of each one on PNA. In another two groups, the effect of pretreatment with either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. on the effects of propofol and fentanyl respectively on PNA were studied. Results: Propofol and fentanyl caused a dose-dependent depression of PNA with complete abolition at the highest total doses of 16 mg · kg^?1 i. v. and 32 μg · kg^?1 i. v., respectively. In contrast, midazolam in incremental doses to a total of 0.8 mg · kg^?1 reduced mean PNA by 63%, but approximately 12% of PNA remained at a total dose as high as 6.4 mg · kg^?1. The mean ED₅₀s, calculated from dose-response curves, were 5.4 mg · kg^?1, 3.9 μg · kg^?1 and 0.4 mg · kg^?1 for propofol, fentanyl and midazolam, respectively. Initial doses of either fentanyl 1 μg · kg^?1 i. v. or midazolam 0.05 mg · kg^?1 i. v. acted synergistically with subsequent doses of either propofol or fentanyl to abolish PNA at total doses of 8 mg · kg^?1 and 8 μg · kg^?1, respectively. Conclusion: Fentanyl has a synergistic interaction with both propofol and midazolam on PNA and hence potentially on respiration.     

Influence of dopexamine hydrochloride on haemodynamics and regulators of circulation in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery

Background: Catecholaminergic support is often used to improve haemodynamics in patients undergoing major abdominal surgery. Dopexamine is a synthetic vasoactive catecholamine with beneficial microcirculatory properties. Methods: The influence of perioperative administration of dopexamine on cardiorespiratory data and important regulators of macro- and microcirculation were studied in 30 patients undergoing Whipple pancreaticduodenectomy. The patients received randomized and blinded either 2 μg · kg^?1 · min^?1 of dopexamine (n=15) or placebo (n=15, control group). The infusion was started after induction of anaesthesia and continued until the morning of the first postoperative day. Endothelin-1 (ET-1), vasopressin, atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), and catecholamine plasma levels were measured from arterial blood samples. Measurements were carried out after induction of anaesthesia, 2 h after onset of surgery, at the end of surgery, 2 h after surgery, and on the morning of the first postoperative day. Results: Cardiac index (CI) increased significantly in the dopexamine group (from 2.61±0.41 to 4.57±0.78 1 · min^?1 · m^?2) and remained elevated until the morning of the first postoperative day. Oxygen delivery index (DO₂I) and oxygen consumption index (VO₂I) were also significantly increased in the dopexamine group (DO₂I: from 416±91 to 717±110 ml/m² · m²; VO₂I: from 98±25 to 157±22 ml/m² · m²), being significantly higher than in the control group. pHi remained stable only in the dopexamine patients, indicating adequate splanchnic perfusion. Vasopressive regulators of circulation increased significantly only in the untreated control patients (vasopressin: from 4.37±1.1 to 35.9±12.1 pg/ml; ET-1: from 2.88±0.91 to 6.91±1.20 pg/ml). Conclusion: Patients undergoing major abdominal surgery may profit from prophylactic perioperative administration of dopexamine hydrochloride in the form of improved haemodynamics and oxygenation as well as beneficial influence on important regulators of organ blood flow.     

Systemic analgesia adapted to the children's condition

A concept of balanced analgesia using nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), paracetamol (acetaminophen), opioids, and corticosteroids can also be used in patients with pre-existing illnesses. NSAIDs are the most effective treatment for acute pain of moderate intensity in children; however, these drugs should be avoided in patients at increased risk for serious side effects, e.g. patients with renal impairment, bleeding tendency, or extreme prematurity. NSAIDs can be given with minimal risks to the younger child with mild to moderate asthma, and, in these patients, the use of steroids can be encouraged; in addition to their antiemetic and analgesic action, a beneficial effect on asthma symptoms can be expected. In the non-intubated child with cerebral trauma, exaggerated sedation caused by opioids and increased bleeding tendency caused by NSAIDs must be avoided. In neonates and small infants, the oral administration of sucrose or glucose is helpful to minimize pain reaction during short uncomfortable interventions.