Splicing factor NSSR1 reduces neuronal injury after mouse transient global cerebral ischemia

This study focuses on the function of NSSR1, a splicing factor, in neuronal injury in the ischemic mouse brain using the transient global cerebral ischemic mouse model and the cultured cells treated with oxygen‐glucose deprivation (OGD). The results showed that the cerebral ischemia triggers the expression of NSSR1 in hippocampal astrocytes, predominantly the dephosphorylated NSSR1 proteins, and the Exon3 inclusive NCAM‐L1 variant and the Exon4 inclusive CREB variant. While in the hippocampus of astrocyte‐specific NSSR1 conditional knockdown (cKD) mice, where cerebral ischemia no longer triggers NSSR1 expression in astrocytes, the expression of Exon3 inclusive NCAM‐L1 variant and Exon4 inclusive CREB variant were no longer triggered as well. In addition, the injury of hippocampal neurons was more severe in astrocyte‐specific NSSR1 cKD mice compared with in wild‐type mice after brain ischemia. Of note, the culture media harvested from the astrocytes with overexpression of NSSR1 or the Exon3 inclusive NCAM‐L1 variant, or Exon4 inclusive CREB variant were all able to reduce the neuronal injury induced by OGD. The results provide the evidence demonstrating that: (1) Splicing factor NSSR1 is a new factor involved in reducing ischemic injury. (2) Ischemia induces NSSR1 expression in astrocytes, not in neurons. (3) NSSR1‐mediated pathway in astrocytes is required for reducing ischemic neuronal injury. (4) NCAM‐L1 and CREB are probably mediators in NSSR1‐mediated pathway. In conclusion, our results suggest for the first time that NSSR1 may provide a novel mechanism for reducing neuronal injury after ischemia, probably through regulation on alternative splicing of NCAM‐L1 and CREB in astrocytes. GLIA 2015;63:826–845     

NADPH oxidase mediates striatal neuronal injury after transient global cerebral ischemia

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) constitute most of the striatal neurons and are known to be vulnerable to ischemia; however, the mechanisms of the vulnerability remain unclear. Activated forms of nicotinamide-adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (NOX), which require interaction between cytosolic and membrane-bound subunits, are among the major sources of superoxide in the central nervous system. Although increasing evidence suggests that NOX has important roles in neurodegenerative diseases, its roles in MSN injury after transient global cerebral ischemia (tGCI) have not been elucidated. To clarify this issue, C57BL/6 mice were subjected to tGCI by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion for 22 minutes. Western blot analysis revealed upregulation of NOX subunits and recruitment of cytosolic subunits to the cell membrane at early (3 to 6 hours) and late (72 hours) phases after tGCI. Taken together with immunofluorescent studies, this activation arose in MSNs and endothelial cells at the early phase, and in reactive microglia at the late phase. Pharmacological and genetic inhibition of NOX attenuated oxidative injury, microglial activation, and MSN death after tGCI. These findings suggest that NOX has pivotal roles in MSN injury after tGCI and could be a therapeutic target for brain ischemia.     

Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) reduces neuronal injury in a rat model of global cerebral ischemia

Introduction: Many studies report an inverse correlation between levels of DHEA and neurological diseases. Exogenous DHEA protects hippocampal neurons against excitatory amino acid induced neurotoxicity. The purpose of this experiment is to evaluate the effect of DHEA in an animal model of transient but severe forebrain ischemia. Methods: At thirteen days prior to induction of ischemia, male Wistar rats were implanted with various doses of DHEA-placebo, 25 mg, 50 mg or 100 mg. Forebrain ischemia was induced for 10 min using a modified four-vessel occlusion technique, with hippocampal neuronal injury assessed at 7 days post-ischemically and expressed as a percentage of total cells. Results: Both normal and necrotic hippocampal CA(1) cells were counted. Percentages of hippocampal injury observed were 88+/-13% in animals treated with placebo, 84+/-8% in the 25 mg DHEA group, and 60+/-7% in the 50 mg DHEA group. Animals treated with 100 mg DHEA displayed a significant (P<0.05) reduction of hippocampal CA(1) cell injury at 60+/-7% Conclusion: Treatment with a high dose, but not a low or moderate dose, of DHEA implantation reduces hippocampal CA(1) neuronal injury following severe but transient forebrain ischemia.     

Topiramate reduces neuronal injury after experimental status epilepticus

Prolonged seizures are associated with injury to vulnerable neurons, particularly in the hippocampus. Identification of compounds that attenuate injury after prolonged seizures could be of value in the management of refractory status epilepticus. We hypothesized that topiramate, an anticonvulsant with multiple mechanisms of action, would attenuate hippocampal neuronal injury when given after experimental status epilepticus. Limbic status epilepticus was induced in adult male Wistar rats for 140 min by unilateral hippocampal electrical stimulation. Rats then received intraperitoneal injections of either vehicle (n=6) or topiramate at 20 mg/kg (n=6), 40 mg/kg (n=7) or 80 mg/kg (n=7). Three days later, hippocampal sections were processed for neuronal degeneration using a silver impregnation stain. Seizure-induced damage was assessed by measuring the density of silver staining in hippocampal regions CA1, CA3 and dentate hilus. Administration of topiramate at each dose was associated with a significant reduction in staining density bilaterally in area CA1 and the dentate hilus. Reduction in staining density in area CA3 was seen contralateral to the side of stimulation at the two higher topiramate doses only. The results indicate that administration of topiramate after experimental status epilepticus can attenuate seizure-induced hippocampal neuronal injury.     

Candesartan reduces superoxide production after global cerebral ischemia

Excessive superoxide production after cerebral ischemia is known to mediate neuronal injury. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor activation results in production of superoxide, but whether angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade prevents production of superoxide and subsequent neuronal injury after ischemia remains unclear. Normotensive rats received the angiotensin II type 1 receptor blocker, candesartan or only vehicle before induction of global cerebral ischemia. Approximately 30% of the hippocampal CA1 neurons survived in candesartan-treated animals, whereas only 2% of neurons survived in vehicle-treated animals. Superoxide production was significantly less in these vulnerable neurons in candesartan-treated animals than in vehicle-treated animals. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor may have an essential role in superoxide production and subsequent injury in vulnerable neurons after global cerebral ischemia.     

喹硫平对小鼠脑缺血致神经元损伤及其机制的实验研究

目的 研究喹硫平对小鼠脑缺血致神经元损伤的保护作用及机制.方法 雄性ICR小鼠给予喹硫平10mg/kg腹腔注射14d预处理,然后闭塞双侧的颈总动脉.实验共分为4个组:假手术组、缺血组、药物对照组及药物保护组.采用Fluoro-Jade B染色观察脑缺血后海马齿状回区神经元损伤情况;采用Western blot方法 检测MDA、BDNF和Bcl-xL/Bax蛋白的表达.结果 缺血组与假手术组比较Fluoro-Jade B染色阳性细胞数量明显增加(P<0.01);药物保护组与缺血组比较Fluoro-Jade B染色阳性细胞数量明显减少(P<0.01).缺血组与假手术组比较Bcl-xL/Bax比值减少(P<0.05);药物保护组与缺血组比较Bcl-xL/Bax比值增加(P<0.05).缺血组与假手术组比较BDNF蛋白表达量减少(P<0.05);药物保护组与缺血组比较BDNF蛋白表达量增加(P<0.05).缺血组与假手术组比较MDA蛋白表达量增加(P<0.05);药物保护组与缺血组比较MDA蛋白表达量减少(P<0.05).结论 喹硫平能够减轻小鼠脑缺血所致的神经元损伤,其机制可能与减少MDA的表达、增加Bcl-xL/Bax的比值、增加BDNF的表达有关.

Abstract：

Objective To study the effects of quetiapine on neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia and its mechanism.Methods The mice were pre-reated with quetiapine(10mg/kg)by intraperitoneal(i.P.)injection once a day for 14 days.After that bilateral common carotid arteries were occluded for 60 rain.We investigated neuronal injury in dentate gyrus of hippocampus after cerebral ischemia through Fluoro-ade B staining.We investigated MDA,BDNF and Bcl-L/Bax protein expression after cerebral ischemia through Western blot technique.Results Fluoro-Jade B staining positive cells significantly increased in ischemia group compared with sham group(P<0.01);Fluoro-Jade B staining positive cells significantly decreased in drug-protective group compared with ischemia group(P<0.01);Bcl-xL/Bax ratio decreased in ischemia group compared with sham group(P<0.05);and Bcl-xL/Bax ratio increased in drug-protective group compared with isehemia group(P<0.05).BDNF protein decreased in ischemia group compared with sham group(P<0.05);BDNF protein increased in drug-protective group compared with ischemia group(P<0.05).MDA protein increased in ischemia group compared with sham group(P<0.05);MDA protein decreased in drug-protective group compared with ischemia group(P<0.05).Conclusions Quetiapine attenuated neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia and its mechanism might be associated with decreasing MDA expression,increasing BDNF expression and increasing Bcl-xL/Bax ratio.     

Caspase inhibitors reduce neuronal injury after focal but not global cerebral ischemia in rats

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Studies show that blocking the activation of caspases by the caspase inhibitors z-VAD.FMK and z-DEVD.FMK can reduce ischemic neuronal injury after cerebral ischemia. Because the severity of ischemia was mild in some studies, we tested the efficacy of these caspase inhibitors on moderately severe but transient forebrain and focal ischemic insults in the rat. METHODS: Various regimens of z-VAD, z-DEVD, and control DMSO were given to rats subjected to either 4-vessel occlusion ischemia (4-VO, 10-minute occlusion, 7-day survival) or distal middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAo, 90-minute occlusion, 22.5-hour survival). In global ischemia, treatments were given immediately after ischemia (experiment 1) or as preischemic and postischemic treatments (experiment 2). Three focal ischemia experiments were done. Injection times were 60 minutes into ischemia (experiment 1) and 60 minutes into ischemia plus 30 and 120 minutes after ischemia (experiment 2). Experiment 3 was identical to experiment 2 except that a 30-minute preischemia treatment was instituted. Core normothermia was maintained in all experiments during ischemia. However, in the last focal and global experiments, core and brain temperatures, respectively, were also measured after ischemia with telemetry probes. Because hyperthermia accompanied z-DEVD treatment, an extra z-DEVD-treated group (MCAo) was included with temperature clamped at normothermia. RESULTS: Neither z-VAD nor z-DEVD significantly reduced CA1 injury after global ischemia. In focal ischemia, both drugs significantly reduced infarction, but only in the third experiment, and the prevention of hyperthermia that accompanied z-DEVD treatment did not alter this. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest a detrimental role of caspases in moderately severe focal but not global cerebral ischemia.     

3-N-butylphthalide improves neuronal morphology after chronic cerebral ischemia

3-N-butylphthalide is an ettectwe drug for acute iscemlc stroke. However, its effects on cnromc cerebral ischemia-induced neuronal injury remain poorly understood. Therefore, this study li- gated bilateral carotid arteries in 15-month-old rats to simulate chronic cerebral ischemia in aged humans. Aged rats were then intragastrically administered 3-n-butylphthalide. 3-N-butylphtha- lide administration improved the neuronal morphology in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of rats with chronic cerebral ischemia, increased choline acetyltransferase activity, and decreased malondialdehyde and amyloid beta levels, and greatly improved cognitive function. These findings suggest that 3-n-butylphthalide alleviates oxidative stress caused by chronic cerebral ischemia, improves cholinergic function, and inhibits amyloid beta accumulation, thereby im- proving cerebral neuronal injury and cognitive deficits.     

Intravenously administered recombinant tissue-plasminogen activator attenuates neuronal injury after mild focal cerebral ischemia in mice

Recombinant tissue-plasminogen activator (t-PA) increases brain injury after focal ischemias leading to overt tissue infarcts. The question arose, whether t-PA may also be detrimental after mild ischemias. To clarify this issue, we submitted mice to 30 min intraluminal thread occlusions and administered normal saline or t-PA (10 mg/kg, i.v.) after reperfusion onset. Thread occlusions resulted in reproducible ischemias, followed by hyperperfusion reactions immediately after thread withdrawal. Post-ischemic LDF did not differ between saline- and t-PA-treated animals. In contrast to earlier studies, where t-PA exacerbated injury, t-PA treatment did not increase, but attenuated disseminate neuronal death in the striatum, as shown by cresyl violet, TUNEL and activated caspase-3 staining 1 and 3 days after the ischemic event (p < 0.05). Our data argue against major detrimental actions of t-PA after mild focal ischemia.     

姜黄素降低短暂性脑缺血再灌注损伤的炎症反应

Inflammatory reactions are important pathophysiological mechanisms of ischemic brain injury.The present study analyzed the anti-inflammatory characteristics of curcumin via myeloperoxidase activity and nitric oxide content after 2-hour ischemia/24-hour reperfusion in Sprague Dawley rats.In addition,expressions of nuclear factor kappa B,tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-1β protein were measured.Curcumin significantly reduced myeloperoxidase and nitric oxide synthase activities and suppressed expressions of nuclear factor kappa B,tumor necrosis factor-α,and interleukin-1β in ischemia/reperfusion brain tissue.Results suggested that the neuroprotective effect of curcumin following cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury could be associated with inhibition of inflammatory reactions.     

bcl-xl over-expression in transgenic mice reduces cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND:Basal cell lymphoma-extra large (bcl-xl) can inhibit neuronal apoptosis by stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane and suppressing cytochrome C release into the cytoplasm. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to further investigate the cascade reaction pathway of cellular apoptosis. We established an ischemia/reperfusion model by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in transgenic and wild-type mice,and observed changes in the number and distribution of apoptotic neural cells,differences in cerebral infa...     

bcl-xl over-expression in transgenic mice reduces cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury*☆

BACKGROUND： Basal cell lymphoma-extra large （bcl-xl） can inhibit neuronal apoptosis by stabilizing the mitochondrial membrane and suppressing cytochrome C release into the cytoplasm. OBJECTIVE： This study aimed to further investigate the cascade reaction pathway of cellular apoptosis. We established an ischemia/repcrfusion model by middle cerebral artery occlusion （MCAO） in transgenic and wild-type mice, and observed changes in the number and distribution of apoptotic neural cells, differences in cerebral infarct volume, in neurological function score, and in cytochrome C expression in the ischemic cerebral cortex, at different time points, DESIGN AND SETTING： The present gene engineering and cell biology experiment was performed at the Laboratory of Biology, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences and at the Laboratory of Immunology, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology. MATERIALS： Male bcl-xl over-expression Kunming mice aged 8 weeks and age-matched male wild-type mice were used for this study. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase biotin-dUTP nick end labeling （TUNEL） kits were purchased from Boliman, France. Cytochrome C antibody and Bcl-x immunohistochemical kit were purchased from PharMingen, USA and Santa Cruz Biotechnology, USA, respectively. METHODS： Following MCAO and reperfusion, apoptosis in the ischemic cerebral cortex was detected by the TUNEL assay. Prior to MCAO and 3 hours after reperfusion, the Bcl-xl protein level in the ischemic cerebral cortex was measured by immunohistochemistry. At 3, 6, 12 and 24 hours after reperfusion, the level of cytochrome C in the ischemic cerebral cortex was examined by western blot analysis. Subsequent to MCAO, cerebral infarct volume measurement and neurological examination were performed. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES： Neural cell apoptosis and cytochrome C expression in the ischemic cerebral cortex; cerebral infarct volume and neurological function score. RESULTS： Twenty-four hours after reperfusion, cerebral inf     

葡萄糖调节蛋白78对脑缺血再灌注后神经细胞凋亡的影响

目的 通过体内体外实验探讨内质网伴侣蛋白-葡萄糖调节蛋白(GRP)78对缺血再灌注后神经细胞凋亡的影响.方法 体内实验采用大鼠大脑中动脉线栓模型,应用免疫组织化学、Western blot和RT-PCR方法检测脑缺血再灌注后缺血周围区GRP78表达的动态变化;体外实验通过原代培养的海马神经元建立脑缺血再灌注模型,Western blot方法观察去糖去氧及恢复糖氧后GRP78表达的变化,并运用2脱氧葡萄糖诱导GRP78高表达,观察对神经细胞凋亡的影响.结果 体内实验:与假手术组相比,脑缺血再灌注后GRP78表达明显增强,再灌注12 h达高峰(mRNA:0.7367±0.0651,F-477.160,P<0.01;蛋白:0.8129±0.0748,F=39.857,P<0.01).体外实验:经2脱氧葡萄糖预处理高表达GRP78的神经细胞活力明显增强(与单纯去糖去氧组相比,细胞活力增加了39.22%±0.44%,t=46.374,P<0.01),凋亡细胞减少(与单纯去糖去氧组相比,凋亡细胞数减少16.60±1.02,t=7.530,P<0.01).结论 脑缺血再灌注启动内质网应激反应,与神经细胞凋亡有关;诱导GRP78高表达可以减轻缺血再灌注性神经元的损伤和凋亡.     

The role of PARL and HtrA2 in striatal neuronal injury after transient global cerebral ischemia

The presenilin-associated rhomboid-like (PARL) protein and high temperature requirement factor A2 (HtrA2) are key regulators of mitochondrial integrity and play pivotal roles in apoptosis. However, their roles after cerebral ischemia have not been thoroughly elucidated. To clarify these roles, mice were subjected to transient global cerebral ischemia, and striatal neuronal injury was assessed. Western blot and coimmunoprecipitation analyses revealed that PARL and processed HtrA2 localized to mitochondria, and that PARL was bound to HtrA2 in sham animals. Expression of PARL and processed HtrA2 in mitochondria significantly decreased 6 to 72 hours after ischemia, and the binding of PARL to HtrA2 disappeared after ischemia. In contrast, expression of processed HtrA2 increased 24 hours after ischemia in the cytosol, where HtrA2 was bound to X chromosome-linked inhibitor-of-apoptosis protein (XIAP). Administration of PARL small interfering RNA inhibited HtrA2 processing and worsened ischemic neuronal injury. Our results show that downregulation of PARL after ischemia is a key step in ischemic neuronal injury, and that it decreases HtrA2 processing and increases neuronal vulnerability. In addition, processed HtrA2 released into the cytosol after ischemia contributes to neuronal injury via inhibition of XIAP.     

The mitochondrial K(ATP) channel opener BMS-191095 reduces neuronal damage after transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats.

Activation of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium (mitoK(ATP)) channels protects the brain against ischemic or chemical challenge. Unfortunately, the prototype mitoK(ATP) channel opener, diazoxide, has mitoK(ATP) channel-independent actions. We examined the effects of BMS-191095, a novel selective mitoK(ATP) channel opener, on transient ischemia induced by middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) in rats. Male Wister rats were subjected to 90 mins of MCAO. BMS-191095 (25 microg; estimated brain concentration of 40 micromol/L) or vehicle was infused intraventricularly before the onset of ischemia. In addition, the effects of BMS-191095 on plasma and mitochondrial membrane potentials and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production in cultured neurons were examined. Finally, we determined the effects of BMS-191095 on cerebral blood flow (CBF) and potassium currents in cerebrovascular myocytes. Treatment with BMS-191095 24 h before the onset of ischemia reduced total infarct volume by 32% and cortical infarct volume by 38%. However, BMS-191095 administered 30 or 60 mins before MCAO had no effect. The protective effects of BMS-191095 were prevented by co-treatment with 5-hydroxydecanoate (5-HD), a mitoK(ATP) channel antagonist. In cultured neurons, BMS-191095 (40 micromol/L) depolarized the mitochondria without affecting ROS levels, and this effect was inhibited by 5-HD. BMS-191095, similar to the vehicle, caused an unexplained but modest reduction in the CBF. Importantly, BMS-191095 did not affect either the potassium currents in cerebrovascular myocytes or the plasma membrane potential of neurons. Thus, BMS-191095 afforded protection against cerebral ischemia by delayed preconditioning via selective opening of mitoK(ATP) channels and without ROS generation.     

树脑缺血后海马线粒体应激与神经元损伤机制研究

目的研究光化学诱导树脑缺血后不同时间海马神经元细胞色素C(CytC)表达及caspase mRNA含量的改变;探讨脑缺血时神经元线粒体应激导致海马继发性损伤的分子机制。方法免疫组化法检测树缺血后不同时间缺血侧海马神经元CytC蛋白表达;低温差速离心分离海马脑组织线粒体和细胞质部分,western blot法检测其CytC的含量变化;实时荧光PCR检测海马组织caspase-3及caspase-9 mRNA。结果光化学诱导树脑缺血后,海马神经元CytC于24h时由线粒体释放入胞质,而caspase-3、caspase-9 mRNA显著升高,caspase-3与caspase-9之间具有相关性。结论光化学诱导树脑缺血后,海马神经元线粒体应激,促凋亡蛋白CytC从线粒体释放入胞质,改变了空间分布,启动caspase级联反应,是脑缺血后海马神经元继发性损伤的病理生理机制之一。