Bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy for the diagnosis of pulmonary infections in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome

The efficacy of bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy in diagnosing lung infection was determined in 276 fiberoptic bronchoscopic examinations done on 171 patients with known or suspected acquired immunodeficiency syndrome. Of 173 pathogens (Pneumocystis carinii, cytomegalovirus, Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare, Cryptococcus neoformans, M. tuberculosis, Coccidioides immitis, and Histoplasma capsulatum) identified during the initial evaluation or in the subsequent month, the initial bronchoscopic examination detected 166 (96%). Bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy had sensitivities of 86% and 87%, respectively. When bronchoscopy included both bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy, the yield for all pathogens was 98% and the sensitivity for P. carinii infections was 100%. Follow-up for at least 3 weeks after examination failed to detect any additional false-negative results. Fiberoptic bronchoscopy is extremely accurate for the detection of pathogens in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, especially when bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial biopsy are combined. In patients at high risk of complications from transbronchial biopsy, bronchoalveolar lavage is sufficiently accurate to be used alone.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage

In formulating a reasonable position about the clinical use of BAL and its analysis, one must acknowledge that it is still an experimental procedure that needs further assessment, and it must continue to be included as part of patient research protocols. Therefore, neither the patient nor his/her insurance carrier should foot the bill, yet. The cost involved in analysis of BAL fluid and serum raises another consideration about how many things need to be measured and what tests give the essential information and are the most discriminating. Clearly, all of the assays suggested by some of the BAL results given in table 2 are not necessary. The cell count and the differential count, indicating the relative percentage of lymphocytes among the respiratory cells, and monoclonal antibody staining to distinguish the various T-cell subtypes give most of the essential cell information that relates to activity of alveolitis and to diagnosis in the interstitial lung diseases. Finding a very high percentage of lymphocytes in BAL fluid shifts the differential diagnosis in an unknown diffuse interstitial lung disease to the possibility of a granulomatous process, especially sarcoidosis or hypersensitivity pneumonitis; whereas elevated PMN with about 3% eosinophils also present suggests possible idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. Many of the protein and enzyme assays have a role in describing immunopathogenesis, but are rarely measured until a few days after the procedure. Some quite sophisticated cell mediators can be measured, such as interleukin-2 produced by helper T-lymphocytes and many macrophage effector substances that may give more precise information than just cell counts and various immunoglobulin values. These assays require complex biochemical and cell culture work and are only available in special research laboratories, limiting the availability of such tests. Thus, it is not easy to suggest just what tests should be conducted with BAL cells and fluid to tailor costs yet give comprehensive clinical information, too. The use of BAL to obtain cells and proteins lining the alveolar space in many ways is still in its infancy, and new applications are being sought for a substantial list of lung diseases. Just the tip of the iceberg has been investigated, and much more may remain to be uncovered.     

Primary pulmonary lymphoma diagnosed by transbronchial biopsy and bronchoalveolar lavage findings

A 45 year-old male was admitted to Tokyo University Hospital because of a submandibular tumor. Biopsy specimen of the tumor showed medium-sized non-Hodgkin's lymphoma of follicular type and immunoperoxidase staining of frozen sections demonstrated an overwhelming predominance of B lymphocytes with IgM, lambda chain. In the meanwhile, chest X-ray taken on admission showed an ill-defined consolidation with a tumor-like appearance in the right middle lung field. Transbronchial biopsy of this lesion revealed massive infiltrations of small and medium sized lymphocytes, having the same markers as those of submandibular tumor (IgM, lambda chain) and an analysis of bronchoalveolar lavage showed a significant increase of CD19-positive B lymphocytes. Reviewing of check-up X-ray films showed the lung lesion to have preceded the submandibular tumor and to have increased its size in several years. On the basis of the similarity of histological and immunohistochemical findings between pulmonary and submandibular tumor, and considering the time course of the appearance of these tumors, we concluded that these tumors were of the same histological nature and had originated in the lung and metastasized to submandibular gland. This is a relatively rare case of pulmonary lymphoma metastasizing to the submandibular gland, in which transbronchial biopsy specimen and analysis of lymphocytes in bronchoalveolar lavage were helpful in establishing the diagnosis.     

Combined bronchoalveolar lavage and transbronchial lung biopsy: safety and yield in ventilated patients.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and diagnostic yield of bedside bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) combined with fibrescopic transbronchial lung biopsy (TBLB) in determining the aetiology of pulmonary infiltrates in mechanically ventilated patients. The records of 38 mechanically ventilated patients who underwent BAL/TBLB to investigate unexplained pulmonary infiltrates were retrospectively reviewed. Patients were divided into two groups: immunocompetent (group 1: n = 22; group 1a: n = 11, late acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS); group 1b: n = 11, no ARDS) and immunocompromised (group 2, n=16). The procedure allowed a diagnosis in 28 patients (74%), inducing therapeutic modification in 24 (63%) and confirmation of clinical diagnosis in four (11%). In groups 1a, 1b and 2, diagnosis was obtained in 11 out of 11 (fibroproliferation), seven out of 11 and 10 out of 16 patients, and therapy changed in 11 out of 11 (administration of steroids), six out of 11 and seven out of 16 patients, respectively. Pneumothorax occurred in nine patients (four of group 1a), bleeding in four (<35 mL), and transient hypotension in two. No fatalities were procedure-related. Combined bronchoalveolar lavage/transbronchial lung biopsy is of diagnostic and therapeutic value in mechanically ventilated patients with unexplained pulmonary infiltrates, excluding those with late acute respiratory distress syndrome. Although complications are to be expected, the benefits of the procedure appear to exceed the risks in patients in whom a histological diagnosis is deemed necessary.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in ankylosing spondylitis.

Bronchoalveolar lavage and bronchial biopsies were performed in 15 patients with ankylosing spondylitis (AS) and 17 control subjects. There was no difference in total cell count, number of lymphocytes, CD4+/CD8+ ratio, or beta 2 microglobulin concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid between these two groups. Bronchoalveolar lavage IgA concentrations were not increased, but bronchial IgA deposits were more common in AS. This study failed to show any subclinical alveolitis in AS.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in sarcoidosis

There is no single cell type present in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid that appears to be predictive for sarcoidosis. However, BAL fluid analysis can be very helpful in the differential diagnosis. A grouping of features, an elevated total cell count, predominantly lymphocytes, together with a nearly normal percentage of eosinophils and polymorphonuclear neutrophils and the absence of plasma cells, distinguish the most likely diagnosis of sarcoidosis from the most common interstitial lung diseases, extrinsic allergic alveolitis (EAA), nonspecific interstitial pneumonia (NSIP), and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). In sarcoidosis the majority of cases have an increased number of lymphocytes and a normal amount of eosinophils and neutrophils. Disease presentation or activity at the time the BAL is performed as well as the smoking status is crucial for interpretation of individual BAL fluid analysis results. In severe cases the number of neutrophils can be increased as well. For an individual case the CD4:CD8 ratio is of less importance because it can be increased, normal, and even decreased. In the follow-up depicting prognosis and response to treatment, BAL fluid analysis has less clinical relevance.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in silicosis

In this report we describe the chronic effects of inhaled silica, a potent macrophage toxin, on cells which could be lavaged from the lung in man. Eight bronchoalveolar lavages were performed on patients with complicated silicosis, who had last been exposed to silica 1 to 12 years prior to lavage. We compared the results with those from 10 lavaged control subjects. All subjects in both groups were cigarette smokers. No differences were detected in cell number, viability, adherence or ability to phagocytize and killListeria monocytogenes, but significantly increased numbers of type II pneumocytes were present in lavages from the silicotic subjects. This finding probably indicates type II cell hyperplasia and provides indirect evidence of the continuing presence of biologically active material within the lung years after cessation of exposure to silica.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in sarcoidosis

Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) was performed in 1,188 patients suffering from sarcoidosis. After technical considerations, the authors analyze the results of BAL from a practical point of view concerning its value for the diagnosis of sarcoidosis and its prognostic value and its value for the selection of therapy, particularly for the decision as to steroid treatment. BAL helps in the diagnosis of sarcoidosis, but is not specific enough to provide this diagnosis on its own. The persistence of high alveolar lymphocytosis within the first year of evolution is strongly correlated with nonrecovery from pulmonary sarcoidosis at 2 years and thus with the evolution towards a chronic phase of the disease. On the other hand, BAL can provide basic information for a better understanding of the disease and permits immunocompetent cells and soluble factors to be recovered from the lung, which is useful for immunological studies.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in silicosis

In this report we describe the chronic effects of inhaled silica, a potent macrophage toxin, on cells which could be lavaged from the lung in man. Eight bronchoalveolar lavages were performed on patients with complicated silicosis, who had last been exposed to silica 1 to 12 years prior to lavage. We compared the results with those from 10 lavaged control subjects. All subjects in both groups were cigarette smokers.No differences were detected in cell number, viability, adherence or ability to phagocytize and killListeria monocytogenes, but significantly increased numbers of type II pneumocytes were present in lavages from the silicotic subjects. This finding probably indicates type II cell hyperplasia and provides indirect evidence of the continuing presence of biologically active material within the lung years after cessation of exposure to silica.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in malignancy

Bronchoalveolar lavage is a useful diagnostic tool in diffuse or disseminated lung malignancies that do not involve the bronchial structures visible by endoscopy. The neoplastic histotype and the intraparenchymal neoplastic growth pattern are good predictors for diagnostic yield; adenocarcinoma, and tumors with lymphangitic or lepidic growth patterns are more easily diagnosed by bronchoalveolar lavage; in these cases the diagnostic yield reported is higher than 80%. In hematologic malignancies the diagnostic yield is quite good in secondary diffuse indolent B cell lymphomas and in primary B cell lymphomas of mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) type but low in Hodgkin disease. Morphological analysis may be implemented by immunocytochemical or molecular tests to identify the cell lineage and the presence of monoclonality. Disorders in which bronchioloalveolar cell hyperplasia/dysplasia is a significant morphological component may have cytological features in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid that mimic lung neoplasms: acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), acute interstitial pneumonitis (AIP), and acute exacerbation of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis are the most important clinical entities in this group.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in asbestosis

The interstitial lung disease associated with asbestosis is unique in that the etiological agent and its effects on the pulmonary parenchyma can be studied on a serial basis using bronchoalveolar lavage. In this way both disease activity and structural derangements can be assessed and used in the treatment of the affected individual. In this review, attention has been drawn to the cascade of inflammatory changes induced by asbestos fibers. The activated inflammatory cells are responsible for the alveolitis characteristic of this condition. Like the other forms of diffuse interstitial lung disease, it is the alveolitis that precedes and predicts eventual fibrosis.     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in liquid paraffin pneumonitis.

We evaluated cells and lipids recovered in the bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from seven patients with liquid paraffin pneumonitis. For each patient, the BALF was whitish with oil droplets on the surface. Alveolar macrophages contained numerous, large vacuoles that did not react with May-Grunwald-Giemsa, Papanicolaou, or periodic acid-Schiff but were stained in black with Sudan B, orange with Sudan III and red with oil Red O. Liquid paraffin was identified on thin layer chromatography of BALF-extracted lipids as a very hydrophobic compound migrating on the solvent front as control liquid paraffin. This abnormal spot was definitely identified as liquid paraffin by infrared spectroscopy and gas liquid chromatography for the first patient. The number and percentage of AMs were largely decreased in the BALF of each patient, whereas the number of neutrophils, eosinophils and lymphocytes was increased. These findings suggest that this cell-mediated inflammatory response plays a role in the development of interstitial fibrosis at late stages of liquid paraffin pneumonitis.     

经支气管镜肺活检联合肺泡灌洗对周围性肺癌的诊断价值

目的探讨经支气管肺活检(TBLB)联合支气管肺泡灌洗液(BAL)的脱落细胞学检测对周围性肺癌的诊断价值。方法对65例肺部占位可疑肺癌患者分别行经支气管肺活检,获取标本满意后再行病灶部位的局部肺泡灌洗,将收集的灌洗液及肺活检标本分别送病理室行细胞或组织的病理学检查。病理结果进行整理、分析,将联合检测(TBLB+BAL)结果的阳性率分别同单独的TBLB或BAL进行比较。结果 65例肺部患者中,TBLB确诊肺癌共32例,BAL确诊肺癌41例,联合检测(TBLB+BAL)确诊肺癌共52例,其中TBLB及BAL均找到癌细胞者共27例,TBLB结果阴性而BAL结果阳性者共20例。联合组阳性率(85.2%)高于单独应用组(TBLB 49.2%,BAL 63.1%,P<0.05)。结论经支气管肺活检联合支气管肺泡灌洗较单纯的支气管肺活检或肺泡灌洗能明显提高肺癌的诊断率,值得临床推广。     

Bronchoalveolar lavage in gold lung

We report the results of bronchoalveolar lavage in a patient with gold salt-induced interstitial pneumonitis. The presence of elevated numbers of lymphocytes in the lavage specimen supports a hypersensitivity-related pathogenesis of this disease. Such findings may help distinguish pulmonary complications of gold therapy from interstitial disease due to rheumatoid arthritis.