An elective course in information mastery

Objective

To design and implement an elective course in information mastery and assess its impact on students'' ability to identify information needs and formulate clinically relevant, evidence-based answers.

Design

A semester-long (15-week) elective course was offered to third-year (P3) doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students that outlined the necessary knowledge and skills for using information mastery in evidence-based practice.

Assessment

Results of a pre- and postcourse survey instrument demonstrated an increase in students'' knowledge of information mastery and confidence in and familiarity with the practice of evidence-based medicine in pharmacy. Students who had completed the elective were able to provide higher quality search strategies and evidence-based answers to a clinical question than other P3 students, and P4 students who did not participate in the elective.

Conclusion

An elective course in information mastery improved students'' knowledge and understanding of information mastery as it pertains to practicing evidence-based medicine.     

A Motivational Interviewing Course for Pharmacy Students

Objective

To create, implement, and evaluate a pharmacy course on motivational interviewing.

Design

A 3-hour elective course was created to train doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students in brief patient-centered motivational interviewing counseling strategies that have proven effective with the types of health issues most commonly addressed in pharmacy settings. Students were assisted in developing their skills through required readings, interactive lectures, in-class demonstrations and practice sessions, out of class skills practice, one-on-one supervision provided by doctoral level clinical health psychology students, and written reflections on each class session.

Assessment

Students demonstrated significant improvement in motivational interviewing skills and a high level of motivation for and confidence in using these skills in their future practice. Students overall assessment of the course and supervision process was highly positive.

Conclusion

This patient-centered counseling skills course was feasible and produced improvements in PharmD students'' counseling skills and increased their motivation and confidence to use motivational interviewing skills in their future communications with patients.     

Applying Organ Clearance Concepts in a Clinical Setting

Objective

To teach doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students how to apply organ clearance concepts in a clinical setting in order to optimize dose management, select the right drug product, and promote better patient-centered care practices.

Design

A student-focused 5-hour topic entitled "Organ Clearance Concepts: Modeling and Clinical Applications" was developed and delivered to second-year PharmD students. Active-learning techniques, such as reading assignments and thought-provoking questions, and collaborative learning techniques, such as small groups, were used. Student learning was assessed using application cards and a minute paper.

Assessment

Overall student responses to topic presentation were overwhelmingly positive. The teaching strategies here discussed allowed students to play an active role in their own learning process and provided the necessary connection to keep them motivated, as mentioned in the application cards and minute paper assessments. Students scored an average of 88% on the examination given at the end of the course.

Conclusion

By incorporating active-learning and collaborative-learning techniques in presenting material on organ clearance concept, students gained a more thorough knowledge of dose management and drug-drug interactions than if the concepts had been presented using a traditional lecture format. This knowledge will help students in solving critical patient situations in a real-world context.     

An Anticoagulation Therapy Elective for Third-Year Pharmacy Students

Objective

To develop an anticoagulation elective course for third-year pharmacy students to enhance their knowledge and skills for providing anticoagulation services.

Design

Content developed for the course focused on standards of care, evaluation of primary literature, clinical application, billing and regulatory issues, written and verbal communication, and patient education. Teaching methods included lectures, discussions, demonstrations, and self-directed learning.

Assessment

Assessment methods included multiple-choice examinations, evaluation of patient cases, student presentations, and a practical examination. Students demonstrated competencies in multiple areas and rated the course favorably. Students who completed the elective reported being more prepared for anticoagulation activities than those who did not. Confidence levels regarding participation in anticoagulation services postgraduation were similar.

Conclusion

The elective provided valuable experience in anticoagulation therapy and increased students'' perception of their preparedness related to dealing with anticoagulation issues while on advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs). More exposure to management topics and the logistics of initiating anticoagulation services should be incorporated.     

An Elective Course in Adult Acute Care Medicine Using a Hybrid Delivery System

Objective

To develop and assess the effectiveness of an elective course modeled after activities students encounter on internal medicine advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).

Design

This hybrid elective course used a Web-based course management system linking pre-class lectures and assignments, classroom discussions, and projects to promote active student learning.

Assessment

Assessment of student performance was based on assignments, quizzes, and participation in classroom discussions. Students were surveyed to ascertain their opinion of the elective.

Conclusion

This elective in adult acute care medicine increased student exposure to inpatient settings and provided students additional opportunities to communicate effectively, evaluate medical literature, and think critically.     

An Advanced Cardiovascular Pharmacotherapy Course Blending Online and Face-to-Face Instruction

Objective

To assess the effectiveness of online instruction in a cardiology pharmacotherapy elective.

Design

Eight drug-focused lectures and 6 introductory presentations were added to a cardiology pharmacotherapy course. Students completed an online quiz after each online drug-focused lecture and scores were compared to quizzes taken at the beginning and end of the course, as well as on a cardiology advanced pharmacy practice experience (APPE). For online introductory presentations, students completed a quiz at the beginning of the next face-to-face session. A survey was conducted at the end of the course to obtain student feedback.

Assessment

Compared to baseline scores, student learning was demonstrated after online drug-focused lectures by higher quiz scores attained immediately after completing the lecture, at the end of the course, and at the beginning of the APPE. Furthermore, students performed better on quizzes at the beginning of face-to-face sessions if they first completed an online introductory presentation. Students expressed strong support for the online components of the course.

Conclusions

A blended learning environment with online and face-to-face instruction is an effective way to teach a cardiology pharmacotherapy elective. The online component of this course was well received by students, improved student preparation before attending class, and appeared to enhance long-term cardiovascular drug knowledge.     

Impact of a diabetes certificate program on PharmD students' knowledge and skills

Objectives

To determine the impact of a pregraduation diabetes certificate program on PharmD students'' knowledge and skills.

Methods

A comprehensive elective in diabetes was created and implemented in the third-professional year of the PharmD curriculum. A nonrandomized, single-blinded, controlled, 2-year study was conducted to determine the impact of the elective. Written and oral examinations were administered to the participants and students in a control group.

Results

The certificate students'' (N = 25) and control students'' (N = 12) average oral examination grades were 88.5% ± 13.4% and 89.5% ± 15.8%, respectively (p = 0.58). The certificate students'' average grade on the counseling section of the oral examination was 9% higher than that of the students in the control group (p = 0.01). The certificate students'' and control students'' grades on the written examination were 80.9 ± 11.1% and 61.1 ± 17.4% (p = 0.0062), respectively.

Conclusions

A diabetes certificate program improved students'' knowledge of diabetes disease state management and patient education skills compared to students who did not take the elective.     

An elective course on lifestyle modifications in pharmacotherapy

Objectives

Develop and implement a pharmacy course explaining basic lifestyle modification components and assess changes in student knowledge, skills, beliefs, and confidence after completing the course.

Design

A 2-credit hour elective course was offered to pharmacy students in which basic lifestyle modification components were applied to case-based patients with hypertension, dyslipidemia, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and metabolic syndrome in the pharmacy practice setting through comprehensive wellness programs. Knowledge, skills, beliefs, and confidence assessments were embedded into the course.

Assessment

There were significant improvements in students'' skills and confidence, and in most knowledge areas, but not in their beliefs regarding health behaviors.

Conclusion

Implementing an elective course on lifestyle modifications is an effective means of teaching students about wellness and disease prevention.     

An evidence-based medicine elective course to improve student performance in advanced pharmacy practice experiences

Objective

To implement and evaluate the impact of an elective evidence-based medicine (EBM) course on student performance during advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs).

Design

A 2-hour elective course was implemented using active-learning techniques including case studies and problem-based learning, journal club simulations, and student-driven wiki pages. The small class size (15 students) encouraged independent student learning, allowing students to serve as the instructors and guest faculty members from a variety of disciplines to facilitate discussions.

Assessment

Pre- and posttests found that students improved on 83% of the core evidence-based medicine concepts evaluated. Fifty-four APPE preceptors were surveyed to compare the performance of students who had completed the EBM course prior to starting their APPEs with students who had not. Of the 38 (70%) who responded, the majority (86.9%) agreed that students who had completed the course had stronger skills in applying evidence-based medicine to patient care than other students. The 14 students who completed the elective also were surveyed after completing their APPEs and the 11 who responded agreed the class had improved their skills and provided confidence in using the medical literature.

Conclusions

The skill set acquired from this EBM course improved students'' performance in APPEs. Evidence-based medicine and literature search skills should receive more emphasis in the pharmacy curriculum.     

An Elective Course in Women's Health

Objective

To design, implement, and assess a women''s health elective course for second- and third-year doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students.

Design

A women''s health course was developed, focusing on health promotion, disease prevention, and treatment throughout a woman''s lifespan. Course format included didactic lectures, in-class activities, peer teaching, case studies, and reading assignments.

Assessment

Student performance and learning were assessed based on class participation, (graded 3 times during the semester), activities and assignments, (graded weekly), and 2 formal written assessments. Student survey results indicated perceptions of women''s health had changed in 3 ways: a realization that many diseases manifest differently in women than men, an increased awareness of numerous diseases not addressed in the required curriculum that affect women, and a greater appreciation of the physiological and pharmacokinetic differences that increase the potential for adverse drug reactions in women.

Conclusion

An elective course in women''s health was well received by PharmD students. Excellent student performance in weekly active-learning activities and class participation, however, did not translate into excellent performance on subsequent formal assessments.     

A distance education course in statistics

Objectives

To evaluate the learning outcomes of an online, distance education course in statistics for doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students.

Design

Lectures for the course were produced by the course faculty, converted into digital format (mp4), placed within the college''s course management system, and video streamed to students. The course required students to interact with the course content using workbooks and simulations and with the instructor via VoIP examination reviews.

Assessment

A quasi-experimental study involving 4 groups of students was conducted. Second-year (P2) students were assigned randomly to 1 of 3 groups and asked to complete a precourse survey that contained: demographic information only (group 1); demographic items plus 10 items assessing statistics knowledge (group 2); or demographic items plus 20 items assessing statistics knowledge (group 3). At the end of the course, all students were given the same 20 items on the final examination (postcourse survey instrument). A control group consisting of randomly selected first-year (P1) students completed the 20-item precourse survey instrument. P1 and P2 students'' scores on the 20-item precourse survey were not significantly different. Students who had taken a statistics course before entering the PharmD program scored higher on the precourse survey. P2 students in all 3 study groups had similar scores on the final examination (postcourse survey) (p = 0.43).

Conclusions

Students can be taught the basic principles of statistics and how to use statistics to read the pharmacy and medical literature entirely online. This study has significant implications for how classes traditionally taught in the classroom might be taught at a distance using innovative instructional technologies.     

An Elective Psychiatric Course to Reduce Pharmacy Students�� Social Distance Toward People With Severe Mental Illness

Objective

To determine whether an elective course on mental health could reduce pharmacy students’ social distance toward people with severe mental illness.

Design

Course activities included assigned readings, class discussions, student presentations, review of video and other media for examples of social distance, presentations by patients with mental illness, and visits to hospitalized patients in a variety of psychiatric settings.

Assessment

The Social Distance Scale (SDS) was administered at the beginning and end of the semester to students enrolled in the elective and to a comparator group of students not enrolled in the course. Pharmacy students who did not complete the elective had significantly higher SDS scores than students who completed the elective (18.7 vs. 15.6, p < 0.001). Students enrolled in the course had lower precourse SDS scores, were more likely than their peers to have a personal association with mental illness, and had a decrease in precourse to postcourse scores.

Conclusion

A course designed to reduce stigma towards the mentally ill can reduce pharmacy students'' social distance.     

Poster project to emphasize public health in the pharmacy curriculum

Objective

To implement and assess a required public health poster project in a doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) program.

Design

Third-year PharmD students collaborated in pairs to research a public health topic relating to pharmacy practice. Each student group prepared an informational poster, while receiving feedback from a faculty mentor at each stage of the project. The students presented their completed posters at a statewide pharmacy conference.

Assessment

Faculty members evaluated the posters with a grading rubric, and students completed a survey instrument that assessed the overall experience. In general, faculty members rated the class highly across all domains of the grading rubric. The class generally agreed that the poster project increased their awareness of public health issues related to pharmacy practice, overall knowledge of public health, and presentation skills.

Conclusion

The implementation of a poster project was well received by students and faculty members as an effective method for enhancing public health instruction in the PharmD program at North Dakota State University.     

Pharmacogenomics training using an instructional software system

Objectives

To implement an elective course in pharmacogenomics designed to teach pharmacy students about the fundamentals of pharmacogenomics and the anticipated changes it will bring to the profession.

Design

The 8 sessions of the course covered the basics of pharmacogenomics, genomic biotechnology, implementation of pharmacogenetics in pharmacy, information security and privacy, ethical issues related to the use of genomic data, pharmacoepidemiology, and use and promotion of GeneScription, a software program designed to mimic the professional pharmacy environment.

Assessment

Student grades were based on completion of a patient education pamphlet, a 2-page paper on pharmacogenomics, and precourse and postcourse survey instruments. In the postcourse survey, all students strongly agreed that genomic data could be used to determine the optimal dose of a drug and genomic data for metabolizing enzymes could be stored in a safe place. Students also were more willing to submit deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) data for genetic profiling and better understood how DNA analysis is performed after completing the course.

Conclusions

An elective course in pharmacogenomics equipped pharmacy students with the basic knowledge necessary to make clinical decisions based on pharmacogenomic data and to teach other healthcare professionals and patients about pharmacogenomics. For personalized medicine to become a reality, all pharmacists and pharmacy students must learn this knowledge and these skills.     

Human patient simulation in a pharmacotherapy course

Objective

To incorporate human patient simulation (HPS) into a pharmacotherapy course and evaluate its impact on students'' satisfaction and mastery of course objectives.

Design

Various levels of HPS were used for clinical skills assessments, reinforcement of concepts previously introduced in class, and presentation of simulated patient case scenarios requiring critical-thinking and problem-solving abilities. Pre- and post-simulation examinations and a satisfaction survey instrument were administered.

Assessment

Significant improvement was seen in students'' knowledge on post-simulation examinations. On problem-solving skills, the majority of student groups received a final case grade >95%. Students indicated high levels of satisfaction with the use of HPS in the course and showed increased levels of confidence in their pharmacotherapy/patient care skills.

Conclusion

Human patient simulation provided a unique opportunity for students to apply what they learned and allowed them to practice problem-solving skills. Students grew in confidence and knowledge through exposure to realistic simulation of clinical scenarios. Students showed improvement in knowledge and ability to resolve patient treatment problems, as well as in self-confidence.     

A Progress Assessment to Evaluate Pharmacy Students' Knowledge Prior to Beginning Advanced Pharmacy Practice Experiences

Objective

To develop an assessment that would (1) help doctor of pharmacy (PharmD) students review therapeutic decision making and build confidence in their skills, (2) provide pharmacy practice residents with the opportunity to lead small group discussions, and (3) provide the assessment committee with program-level assessment data.

Design

A case-based interactive assessment was developed and delivered to PharmD students immediately prior to advanced pharmacy practice experiences (APPEs). The assessment used an audience response system to allow immediate feedback followed by small group discussions led by pharmacy-practice residents. Students self-assessed their knowledge and confidence levels and developed personalized learning objectives for APPEs.

Assessment

Eighty-nine percent of students found the assessment useful, and pharmacy practice residents reported that it was helpful in developing precepting skills. The college assessment committee was able to use the data to supplement the ongoing College curricular mapping process.

Conclusions

An interactive assessment process can help students build confidence for experiential training, provide a learning opportunity for pharmacy residents, and produce program-level data for college assessment purposes. Planned modifications of the assessment include expanding the content areas covered and adding ability-based assessments such as communication skills.     

Elective course in acute care using online learning and patient simulation

Objective

To enhance students’ knowledge of and critical-thinking skills in the management of acutely ill patients using online independent learning partnered with high-fidelity patient simulation sessions.

Design

Students enrolled in the Acute Care Simulation watched 10 weekly Web-based video presentations on various critical care and advanced cardiovascular pharmacotherapy topics. After completing each online module, all students participated in groups in patient-care simulation exercises in which they prepared a pharmacotherapeutic plan for the patient, recommended this plan to the patient''s physician, and completed a debriefing session with the facilitator.

Assessment

Students completed a pretest and posttest before and after each simulation exercise, as well as midterm and final evaluations and a satisfaction survey. Pharmacy students significantly improved their scores on 9 of the 10 tests (p ≤ 0.05). Students’ performance on the final evaluation improved compared with performance on the midterm evaluation. Overall, students were satisfied with the unique dual approach to learning and enjoyed the realistic patient-care environment that the simulation laboratory provided.

Conclusion

Participation in an elective course that combined self-directed Web-based learning and hands-on patient simulation exercises increased pharmacy students’ knowledge and critical-thinking skills in acute care.