Force-, power-, and elasticity-velocity relationships in walking,running, and jumping

Summary Ground reaction forces and mechanical power were investigated when the subjects walked normally, while they were racing or running at four speeds, and when they performed the running long jump take-off. In addition, the apparent spring constants of the support leg in eccentric and concentric phases were investigated at the four running speeds, during the running long jump take-off, and in the triple jump. Six club level track and field athletes, four national level long jumpers, and six national level triple jumpers took part in the study. Cinematographic technique and a mathematical model of hopping (Alexander and Vernon 1975) were employed in the analysis. Force and power values were found to vary in the following order (from highest to lowest): long jump take-off, maximal running speed, submaximal running (80, 60, and 40% of maximum speed), racing gait, and normal gait. The data disclosed that the measured parameters had the highest values in the long jump take-off performed by the long jump athletes. Their peak values were: resultant ground reaction force 3270±74 N and mechanical power 160.1±10.5 J×kg^–1×s^–1. For the track and field athletes the values were 2010±80 N and 126.0±12.6 J ×kg^–1×s^–1. The apparent spring constant values of the support leg in the national level jumper group were in eccentric phase 30.54±8.38 N×mm^–1 ×kg^–1 and in concentric phase 0.129±0.012 N×mm^–1×kg^–1. In the track and field athletes the values were 13.97±1.01 N×mm^–1×kg^–1 and 0.093±0.003 N×mm^–1×kg^–1, respectively. In general, the increase in force and mechanical power output was related to the value of the apparent spring constant of the support leg in the eccentric phase. The spring constant in the eccentric phase increased with the velocity of motion in running, the long jump take-off and the triple jump. This suggests that it may be possible to use this parameter as a measure of mechanical performance, as it may reflect the combined elasticity of muscles, tendons, and bones.     

Vergleichende Darstellung der Entwicklungsbiologie der GattungenSarcocystis,Frenkelia, Isospora,Cystoisospora, Hammondia,Toxoplasma undBesnoitia

Zusammenfassung Es wird ein Überblick über neue Erkenntnisse in der Entwicklungsbiologie der sogenannten zystenbildenden Kokzidien in den Jahren 1974 bis 1978 gegeben. Bis 1970 kannte man bei Katze, Hund und Mensch nur 6 Isosporaarten. Durch die Entdeckung der Kokzidiennatur der Toxoplasmen, Sarkosporidien, Besnoitien und Frenkelien sowie durch die Neubeschreibung der GattungHammondia ist die Zahl der bei Hund, Katze und Mensch bekannten Arten inzwischen auf über 30 angestiegen. Es hat sich weiterhin gezeigt, daß auch Greifvögel und Eulen sowie Reptilien Endwirte für mehrere Sarcocystis-und Frenkeliaarten sind. Die Kokzidien mit Oozysten vom Isosporatyp lassen sich in 2 große Gruppen einteilen: Arten, bei denen im Endwirt nur eine Gamogonie sowie die Sporogonie ablaufen (Sarcocystis, Frenkelia), und Arten mit Schizogonie und Gamogonie im Endwirt und der Sporogonie im Freien (Isospora, Cystoisospora, Hammondia, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia). Die Gliederung der ersten Gruppe in die GattungenSarcocystis undFrenkelia aufgrund der Lokalisation der Zysten in der Muskulatur bzw. im Gehirn wird sich in Zukunft kaum aufrecht erhalten lassen. Eine Einteilung in Organismen mit kleinen Zystozoiten (ca. 7 m) und Vögeln oder Reptilien als Endwirten (Sarcocystis undFrenkelia spp. aus Nagern) und in solche mit ca. 15 m großen Zystozoiten und Säugetieren als Endwirten (Sarcocystis spp. der Haustiere und Nager) wäre sinnvoller. Die zweite Gruppe kann man in einwirtige Arten (Isospora), fakultativ zweiwirtige Spezies ohne Vermehrung im Zwischenwirt (Cystoisospora) und Gattungen mit 2-phasiger Vermehrung im Zwischenwirt (Hammondia, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia) weiter aufgliedern. Die Nomenklatur der einzelnen Arten ist sehr umstritten. Als Beispiel werden die konträren Ansichten zur Taxonomie der Sarkosporidien des Rindes näher erläutert. Zur Zeit läuft ein Antrag an die Internationale Kommission für die Zoologische Nomenklatur, eine Reihe von Namen fürnomina dubia zu erklären und eindeutige Bezeichnungen für diejenigen Organismen einzuführen, für die Typexemplare hinterlegt werden können.

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Comparative review of the developmental biology of the generaSarcocystis, Frenkelia, Isospora, Cystoisospora, Hammondia, Toxoplasma andBesnoitia

Summary A review is given of the advances in our knowledge of the developmental biology of the so-called cyst-forming coccidia in the years from 1974 to 1978. Until 1970 only 6Isospora species were known to occur in cats, dogs and men. After the discovery of the coccidian nature of the generaToxoplasma, Sarcocystis, Besnoitia andFrenkelia, and after the discovery of the new genusHammondia the number of known species rose to over 30. In addition it could be shown that also birds of prey, owls and reptiles serve as final hosts for severalSarcocystis andFrenkelia species. The coccidia with isosporoid oocysts can be classified into two major groups: Species with gamogony and sporogony in the final host (Sarcocystis, Frenkelia) and species with schizogony and gamogony in the final host and sporogony on the ground (Isospora, Cystoisospora, Hammondia, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia). The subdivision of the first group into the generaSarcocystis andFrenkelia based on the localization of their cysts in the musculature and in the brain, respectively, cannot be upheld in the future. Their classification into organisms with small cystozoites of about 7 m with birds or reptiles as final hosts (Sarcocystis andFrenkelia species of rodents) and those with large cystozoites of about 15 m and mammals as final hosts (Sarcocystis spp. of domestic animals and rodents) would be more significative. The second group can be subdivided into monoxenous species (Isospora), species with an optional intermediate host in which no or only slight multiplication occurs (Cystoisospora) and in genera with a multiplication in two phases in the intermediate host (Hammondia, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia). The nomenclature of single species is very controversial. As an example the controversial apprehension of the taxonomy of theSarcocystis species of cattle is discussed. An application has been submitted to the International Commission for the Zoological Nomenclature to declare a number of names asnomina dubia and to introduce unambiguous names for those organisms for which type specimens are available.

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Übersichtsreferat gehalten im Verlauf der 8. Tagung der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Parasitologie vom 15.–18.3.1978 in Freiburg im Breisgau     

Noninvasive determination of the anaerobic threshold in canoeing,cross-country skiing,cycling, roller,and iceskating,rowing, and walking

Summary The relationship between velocity (V) and heart rate (HR) was determined in four canoeists, 42 cross-country skiers, 73 cyclists, nine ice-skaters, 10 roller-skaters, 32 rowers, and 20 walkers. The athletes were asked to increase their work intensity progressively, from low to submaximal velocities; HRs were determined by ECG in roller-, ice-skating, and walking, or read on a cardiofrequency meter in canoeing, cross-country skiing, cycling, and rowing.In all the athletes examined the linearity of the V-HR relationship was maintained up to a submaximal speed (deflection velocity, V_d), beyond which the increase in work intensity exceeded the increase in HR.V_d and anaerobic threshold (AT), determined through blood lactate measurements, were coincident in 19 athletes (6 cross-country skiers, 3 cyclists, 2 roller-skaters, 3 rowers, and 5 walkers).V_d was correlated with the average speeds maintained in walking (20km, n=13, r=0.88), cross-country skiing (15 km, n=20, r=0.80; 30 km, n=8, r=0.82; 12 km, n=7, r=0.86; 11 km, n=7, r=0.86) and cycling (1,000 m flying-start, n=68, r=0.83), thus showing that AT is a limiting factor in these aerobic events.     

American Associatin of Anatomists. Eighty Sixth Annual Session,Cornell University Medical College,New York,New York,April 9, 10, 11, 12, 1973. Officers,abstracts, demonstrations

A method for producing flexible silicone rubber casts of the airways of the lungs in-situ is described. Casts are made to correspond to lung volumes occurring during normal breathing. The lung is prepared for casting by replacing the air within with CO₂ followed by filling with degassed physiological saline. The saline dissolves the CO₂ gas within the airways allowing for a bubble-free finished cast. Casting compound is then slowly injected through the trachea. The saline diffuses out of the lung and passes out of the thorax through several small slits in the thoracic wall. After the injection is completed, the cast lung is allowed to cure in-situ before it is removed and the tissue digested away. Finished casts have an overall shape corresponding closely to the shape of the thorax. Casts produced by this in-situ method appear to have more realistic geometrical relationships than those produced from excised lungs.     

Hormones,sex, and asthma

Objective

To summarize the current literature on the sex disparity in asthma and the role of sex hormone signaling in allergic and neutrophilic airway inflammation.

Epidemiology,Diagnosis, Treatment,and Control of Trichinellosis

Summary: Throughout much of the world, Trichinella spp. are found to be the causative agents of human trichinellosis, a disease that not only is a public health hazard by affecting human patients but also represents an economic problem in porcine animal production and food safety. Due to the predominantly zoonotic importance of infection, the main efforts in many countries have focused on the control of Trichinella or the elimination of Trichinella from the food chain. The most important source of human infection worldwide is the domestic pig, but, e.g., in Europe, meats of horses and wild boars have played a significant role during outbreaks within the past 3 decades. Infection of humans occurs with the ingestion of Trichinella larvae that are encysted in muscle tissue of domestic or wild animal meat. Early clinical diagnosis of trichinellosis is rather difficult because pathognomonic signs or symptoms are lacking. Subsequent chronic forms of the disease are not easy to diagnose, irrespective of parameters including clinical findings, laboratory findings (nonspecific laboratory parameters such as eosinophilia, muscle enzymes, and serology), and epidemiological investigations. New regulations laying down rules for official controls for Trichinella in meat in order to improve food safety for consumers have recently been released in Europe. The evidence that the disease can be monitored and to some extent controlled with a rigorous reporting and testing system in place should be motivation to expand appropriate programs worldwide.     

Nouns,verbs, objects,actions, and the animate/inanimate effect

We report an aphasic patient, Z.B.L., who showed a significant advantage for verbs compared to nouns in picture-naming tests. Within the object class, he performed better on animate things than on nonliving things in picture naming as well as in an “attribute judgement task”. This pattern of performance is contrary to the central prediction of a recent proposal (Bird, Howard, & Franklin, 2000 Bird, H., Howard, D. and Franklin, S. 2000. Why is a verb like an inanimate object? Grammatical category and semantic category deficits. Brain and Language, 72: 246–309. [Crossref], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar]), which attributes noun–verb dissociation in aphasic patients to deficits in processing certain kinds of semantic features. This model proposes that conceptual representations of verbs have a lower proportion of sensory features than do representations of nouns; the same is proposed for inanimate versus animate items within the noun category. Noun deficits are assumed to arise due to impairment for the processing of sensory features. The model predicts that if a patient is more impaired for nouns than for verbs, he will also display more difficulty with animate than with inanimate objects. Contrary to predications derived from this theory, Z.B.L. performed better with animate than inanimate nouns.     

Dogmatism,hostility, aggression,and gender roles

The relationships between dogmatism, hostility, and aggression for males and females were studied. Ss were 74 male and 109 female college students, who were administered the D Scale, Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory, Megargee Overcontrolled Hostility Inventory, Gough-Sanford Rigidity Scale, and Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Significant positive relationships were found between dogmatism and hostility for both males and females (p < 0.001). This confirmed theoretical formulations that postulated the more dogmatic to be pervasively hostile, rather than limited to directed expressions of hostility such as prejudice. Only for males, however, was a significant negative relationship between dogmatism and the overcontrolling of hostility found (p < 0.05). In this, and other relationships, males appeared to be more able to integrate aggressive behaviors into personality patterns. While dogmatism related to several personality patterns, it had no relationship to social desirability. Rigidity and dogmatism presepted essentially different personality constellations. Feelings of guilt were related significantly to disaffected patterns such as dogmatism (p < 0.001), hostility (p < 0.001), and aggression (p < 0.05), which suggests a turning inward of feelings of anger and disappointment in addition to their outward expression.     

Synergism among oxidants,proteinases, phospholipases,microbial hemolysins,cationic proteins,and cytokines

A striking similarity exists between the pathogenetic properties of group A streptococci and those of activated mammalian professional phagocytes (neutrophils, macrophages). Both types of cells are endowed by the ability to adhere to target cells; to elaborate oxidants, hydrolases, and membrane-active agents (hemolysins, phospholipases); and to freely invade tissues and destroy cells. From the evolutionary point of view, streptococci might justifiably be considered the forefathers of modern leukocytes. Our earlier findings that synergy between a streptococcal hemolysin (streptolysin S, SLS) and a streptococcal thiol-dependent proteinase and between cytotoxic antibodies + complement and streptokinase-activated plasmin readily killed tumor cells, led us to hypothesize that by analogy to the pathogenetic mechanisms of streptococci, the mechanisms of tissue destruction initiated by activated leukocytes in inflammatory sites, as well as in tissues undergoing episodes of ischemia and reperfusion, might also be the result of the synergistic effects among leukocyte-derived oxidants, phospholipases, proteinases, cytokines, and cationic proteins. The current report extends our previous synergy studies with endothelial cells to two additional cell types-monkey kidney epithelial cells and rat beating heart cells. Monolayers of⁵¹Cr-labeled cells that had been treated by combinations of sublytic amounts of hydrogen peroxide (generated either by glucose oxidase, xanthine-xanthine oxidase, or by paraquat) and with sublytic amounts of a variety of membrane-active agents (streptolysin S, phospholipases A₂ and C, lysophosphatides, histone, chlorhexidine) were killed in a synergistic manner (double synergy). Crystalline trypsin markedly enhanced cell killing by combinations of oxidant and the membrane-active agents (triple synergy). Injury to the cells was characterized by the appearance of large membrane blebs that detached from the cells and floated freely in the media, looking like lipid droplets. Cytotoxicity induced by the various combinations of agonists was depressed, to a large extent, by scavengers of hydrogen peroxide (catalase, dimethyl thiourea, and by Mn²⁺) but not by SOD or by deferoxamine. When cationic agents were employed together with hydrogen peroxide, polyanions (heparin, polyanethole sulfonate) were also found to inhibit cell killing. It is proposed that in order to effectively combat the deleterious toxic effects of leukocyte-derived agonists on cells and tissues, antagonistic cocktails comprised of cationized catalase, cationized SOD, dimethylthiourea, Mn²⁺ + glycine, proteinase inhibitors, putative inhibitors of phospholipases, and polyanions might be concocted. The current literature on synergistic phenomena pertaining to mechanisms of cell and tissue injury in inflammation is selectively reviewed.     

Allergie,Parallergie, Pathergie

Ohne ZusammenfassungNach einem Vortrag, gehalten auf dem internationalen Facharztfortbildungskurs für Pädiatrie in Köln im Juli 1938.     

Catalog of 605 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) among 13 genes encoding human ATP-binding cassette transporters: ABCA4, ABCA7, ABCA8, ABCD1, ABCD3, ABCD4, ABCE1, ABCF1, ABCG1, ABCG2, ABCG4, ABCG5, and ABCG8

 Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) at some gene loci are useful as markers of individual risk for adverse drug reactions or susceptibility to complex diseases. We have been focusing on identifying SNPs in and around genes encoding drug-metabolizing enzymes and transporters, and have constructed several high-density SNP maps of such regions. Here we report SNPs at additional loci, specifically 13 genes belonging to the superfamily of ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABCA4, ABCA7, ABCA8, ABCD1, ABCD3, ABCD4, ABCE1, ABCF1, ABCG1, ABCG2, ABCG4, ABCG5, and ABCG8). Sequencing a total of 416 kb of genomic DNA from 48 Japanese volunteers identified 605 SNPs among these 13 loci: 14 in 5′ flanking regions, 5 in 5′ untranslated regions, 37 within coding elements, 529 in introns, 8 in 3′ untranslated regions, and 12 in 3′ flanking regions. By comparing our data with SNPs deposited in the dbSNP database of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (US) and with published reports, we determined that 491 (81%) of the SNPs reported here were novel. We also detected 107 genetic variations of other types among the loci examined (insertion–deletions or mono- di-, or trinucleotide polymorphisms). The high-density SNP maps we constructed on the basis of these data should provide useful information for investigating associations between genetic variations and common diseases or responsiveness to drug therapy. Received: February 26, 2002 / Accepted: March 5, 2002     

Energy, structure, conformation, and heart failure

The problem of heart failure is analyzed from the point of view of conformation changes in submolecular cardiomyocyte structures. The development of heart failure as a consequence of abnormal function of contractile myocardial proteins is discussed. The properties of actin and the role of structural changes in actin molecules in the impairment of ATP energy utilization and generation of contractile force by actomyosin complexes are studied. Experiments on animal models and autopsy samples showed that conformation changes precede disturbances in energy utilization by myofibrils, abnormal functioning of the energy-producing and Ca²⁺-transporting systems during the development of heart failure. It is proposed that rigid recombinations of submolecular structures in contracile proteins underlie impairment of myocardial contractility and resistance of the myocardium to regulatory factors and drugs (immobilization). Translated fromByulleten' Eksperimental'noi Biologii i Meditsiny, Vol. 128, No. 8, pp. 124–140, August, 1999     

Arzt,Apotheker, Arznei

Ohne ZusammenfassungArzt und ärztliche Arbeit können an dem Problem der Berufsgestaltung des Apothekers und an den Versuchen, diese Fragen durch Gesetzgebung und Verwaltung zu lösen, nicht vorübergehen. Wir haben daher den zuständigen Referenten der preußischen Staatsregierung gebeten, über diese Fragen in unserer Zeitschrift zu berichten.     

Class 1 Integrons, Gene Cassettes, Mobility, and Epidemiology

 Integrons are genetic elements that, although unable to move themselves, contain gene cassettes that can be mobilized to other integrons or to secondary sites in the bacterial genome. The majority of approximately 60 known gene cassettes encode resistance to antibiotics. Recently, a number of gene cassettes encoding extended-spectrum β-lactamases or carbapenemases have been described. Up to at least five cassettes may be present in an integron, which leads to multiresistance. Frequently, more than one integron is observed within the same bacterial cell. Integrons are widespread in their species distribution. Although integrons are normally reported from Enterobacteriaceae and other gram-negative bacteria, an integron has been described in Corynebacterium glutamicum, a gram-positive species. The gene cassette in this integron showed even higher expression when compared to the expression in Escherichia coli. Integrons have been reported from all continents and are found frequently. The widespread occurrence of integrons is thought to be due to their association with transposon plasmids, conjugative plasmids, or both. Integrons form an important source for the spread of antibiotic resistance, at least in gram-negative bacteria but also potentially in gram-positive bacteria. The aim of this review is to describe the versatility of integrons, especially their mobility and their ability to collect resistance genes.     

Aldosterone low-dose,short-term action in adrenalectomized glucocorticoid-substituted rats: Na,K, Cl,HCO3, osmolyte,and water transport in proximal and rectal colon

The short-term action of aldosterone in physiological concentration on net fluxes of Na, K, Cl, HCO₃, osmolytes, and water was examined in the proximal colon and rectal colon of adrenalectomized (ADX) rats in vivo. The measuring time was 12 h, divided in eight periods of 90 min. (a) Aldosterone alone (6 nmol h^–1kg^–1) did not stimulate transport in ADX rats. In these experiments plasma [K] increased to fatal values. A basal glucocorticoid substitution of 24 nmol h^–1kg^–1 corticosterone caused plasma K to stay constant throughout the experiment, so that epithelial transport was not handicapped by non-specific effects of ADX, but this also did not restore the decreased transport of ADX rats to control values. Under these conditions (absence of aldosterone) in the rectal colon Na and H₂O transport was zero, whereas in the proximal colon flux rates were depressed by between 30% and 50%. In contrast, basal glucocorticoid substitution of 18 nmol h^–1kg^–1 corticoster-one plus infusion of 6 nmol h^–1kg^–1 aldosterone caused transport stimulation to values not significantly different from those of non-ADX controls.We conclude that after ADX, aldosterone at physiological concentrations increases transport if, as a prerequisite, a basal glucocorticoid substitution is provided. Transport of Na, K, and H₂O is under the total control of aldosterone in the rectal colon but is only moderately altered in the proximal colon. (b) In the proximal colon aldosterone is effective on electroneutral Na transport consistent with the Na/H, Cl/HCO₃ double exchanger, while in the rectal colon aldosterone controls the amiloride-sensitive Na channel, which is the sole apical Na transporter in that segment. In this respect the rectal colon is functionally distinct from the distal colon of other studies in the rat, where under unstimulated conditions the double exchanger is present. Regarding Na transport mechanisms, the rat large intestine thus consists of three distinct segments, the proximal, distal, and rectal colon. (c) In the rectal, but not the proximal colon, active net K absorption against the electrochemical gradient took place in the absence of aldosterone, but was suppressed in its presence. (d) The flux ratio of osmolytes over H₂O was constantly hypertonic as compared to the plasma (387±1 mosmol l^–1), independent of absolute flux size, the colonic segment examined, or the steroid concentration used. This effect may be due to a hypertonic unstirred layer within the lamina propria.Jx, transepithelial net flux of x, negative sign denotes secretion; ^ms transepithelial voltage, negative sign indicates luminal negativity     

Knochenregeneration,Kalk, Rachitis,Tetanie

Zusammenfassung Kalkablagerung und Wachstum des Knochens bei der Frakturheilung lassen sich durch künstlich herbeigeführten periodischen Wechsel der Blutreaktion fördern, durch Übersäuerung (außer durch solche mit Phosphorsäure) hemmen. Daher dürften die vonH. Straub für den gesunden Organismus nachgewiesenen rhythmischen Schwankungen der Blutreaktion für den normalen Kalkstoffwechsel, für das Knochenwachstum und für den Kalkspiegel im Blut ebenfalls von Bedeutung sein. Unter Berücksichtigung dieser Zusammenhänge ergeben sich neue Gesichtspunkte für die Beurteilung der Rachitis und Tetanie.     

Nitrospira as versatile nitrifiers: Taxonomy,ecophysiology, genome characteristics,growth, and metabolic diversity

The global nitrogen cycle is of paramount significance as it affects important processes like primary productivity and decomposition. Nitrification, the oxidation of ammonia to nitrate via nitrite, is a key process in the nitrogen cycle. The knowledge about nitrification has been challenged during the last few decades with inventions like anaerobic ammonia oxidation, ammonia-oxidizing archaea, and recently the complete ammonia oxidation (comammox). The discovery of comammox Nitrospira has made a paradigm shift in nitrification, before which it was considered as a two-step process, mediated by chemolithoautotrophic ammonia oxidizers and nitrite oxidizers. The genome of comammox Nitrospira equipped with molecular machineries for both ammonia and nitrite oxidation. The genus Nitrospira is ubiquitous, comes under phylum Nitrospirae, which comprises six sublineages consisting of canonical nitrite oxidizers and comammox. The single-step nitrification is energetically more feasible; furthermore, the existence of diverse metabolic pathways in Nitrospira is critical for its establishment in various habitats. The present review discusses the taxonomy, ecophysiology, isolation, identification, growth, and metabolic diversity of the genus Nitrospira; compares the genomes of canonical nitrite-oxidizing Nitrospira and comammox Nitrospira, and analyses the differences of Nitrospira with other nitrifying bacteria.     

Topical Menthol,Ice, Peripheral Blood Flow,and Perceived Discomfort

Context:

Injury management commonly includes decreasing arterial blood flow to the affected site in an attempt to reduce microvascular blood flow and edema and limit the induction of inflammation. Applied separately, ice and menthol gel decrease arterial blood flow, but the combined effects of ice and menthol gel on arterial blood flow are unknown.

Objectives:

To compare radial artery blood flow, arterial diameter, and perceived discomfort before and after the application of 1 of 4 treatment conditions.

Design:

Experimental crossover design.

Setting:

Clinical laboratory.

Participants or Other Participants:

Ten healthy men, 9 healthy women (mean age = 25.68 years, mean height = 1.73 m, mean weight = 76.73 kg).

Intervention(s):

Four treatment conditions were randomly applied for 20 minutes to the right forearm of participants on 4 different days separated by at least 24 hours: (1) 3.5 mL menthol gel, (2) 0.5 kg of crushed ice, (3) 3.5 mL of menthol gel and 0.5 kg of crushed ice, or (4) no treatment (control).

Main Outcome Measure(s):

Using high-resolution ultrasound, we measured right radial artery diameter (cm) and blood flow (mL/min) every 5 minutes for 20 minutes after the treatment was applied. Discomfort with the treatment was documented using a 1-to-10 intensity scale.

Results:

Radial artery blood flow decreased (P < .05) from baseline in the ice (−20% to −24%), menthol (−17% to −24%), and ice and menthol (−36% to −39%) treatments but not in the control (3% to 9%) at 5, 10, and 15 minutes. At 20 minutes after baseline, only the ice (−27%) and combined ice and menthol (−38%) treatments exhibited reductions in blood flow (P < .05). Discomfort was less with menthol than with the ice treatment at 5, 10, and 20 minutes after application (P < .05). Arterial diameter and heart rate did not change.

Conclusions:

The application of 3.5 mL of menthol was similar to the application of 0.5 kg of crushed ice in reducing peripheral blood flood. Combining crushed ice with menthol appeared to have an additive effect on reducing blood flow.Key Words: rehabilitation, modalities, cryotherapy

Key Points

• The ice, menthol, and ice-plus-menthol treatments all resulted in reduced blood flow compared with the control condition and with baseline.
• The ice-plus-menthol treatment resulted in a more rapid and greater reduction in blood flow.

Soft tissue injuries are the most common injuries encountered in a primary care practice and account for up to 55% of all sport-related injuries.¹ The standard acute care management protocol of soft tissue injuries involves cryotherapy. The physiologic effects of localized cryotherapy are thought to be mediated by reducing metabolic demands on the tissue and blood flow around the injured tissue. This reduction in blood flow to injured tissue in turn reduces edema and hemorrhaging into the tissue and limits the induction of inflammation.^2–5Topical application of either menthol or ice appears to be effective in decreasing arterial perfusion. Ice has a vasoconstrictive effect: it lowers the temperature of the tissues, which stimulates the thermoreceptors and local chemical reactions that result in vasoconstriction.^6–9 Menthol does not lower tissue temperature but rather stimulates thermoreceptors in the skin through a chemical reaction, which results in local vasoconstriction and decreases in blood flow.^10–12 Thus, it seems logical to examine the combined effects of topical menthol and ice to determine whether the vasoconstrictive properties of these treatments are complementary or additive. The purpose of our study was to compare radial artery blood flow, arterial diameter, and perceived discomfort before and at 5, 10, 15, and 20 minutes after the application of 1 of 4 conditions: (1) 3.5 mL of 3.5% menthol gel, (2) 0.5 kg of crushed ice, (3) 3.5 mL of 3.5% menthol gel and 0.5 kg of crushed ice, or (4) no treatment (control). Our hypotheses were as follows:H1The application of 3.5% menthol, crushed ice, or a combination of menthol and crushed ice to the right forearm will result in a reduction in radial artery blood flow compared with the no-treatment (control) condition.H2The application of 3.5% menthol, crushed ice, or a combination of menthol and crushed ice to the right forearm will result in a reduction in radial artery diameter compared with the no-treatment (control) condition.H3The application of 3.5% menthol, crushed ice, or a combination of menthol and crushed ice to the right forearm will result in different perceptions of discomfort.     

Serum iron,copper, zinc,ferritin, and ceruloplasmin after intense heat exposure

Summary Twelve voluntary adult subjects twice took a 30-min sauna bath, at a temperature of 80‡ C with a 30-min rest between each, every 12 h for 1 week. Measurements of serum iron, copper, zinc, ferritin and ceruloplasmin were performed before the experiment, after the first and second 30 min in the sauna and at the end of the week. The first two sauna baths did not significantly change the concentrations of the trace elements measured. After the week the mean serum copper concentration had decreased from 15.0 (SD 1.7) Μmol·l⁻¹ to 13.5 (SD 2.0) Μmol·l⁻¹ (p<0.02). The mean zinc concentration decreased from 13.8 (SD 2.4) Μmol·l⁻¹ to 9.8 (SD 1.8) Μmol·l⁻¹ (p<0.001) during the week of the experiment. At the beginning of the study period two subjects had zinc concentrations below the reference values and after the week nine subjects had zinc concentrations below the reference values. The concentration of serum ferritin decreased from 142.2 (SD 103) Μg·l⁻¹ to 111.3 (SD 89) Μg·l⁻¹ (p<0.02) whereas the values of ceruloplasmin remained unchanged. Our findings confirm the earlier suggestion that heavy exposure to heat can cause a loss of some trace elements, especially zinc. Supported by the Sigrid Juselius Foundation.