宫颈癌PET-CT图像放疗靶区四种勾画方法的初步研究

目的 通过比较4种勾画方法在宫颈癌FDG PET-CT图像上大体肿瘤体积(GTV)差异,寻找适合临床应用的方法。方法 16例行FDG PET-CT放疗前定位的28个宫颈癌病灶的PET图像,分别用视觉勾画法(GTV_vis)、SUV=2.5为边界勾画法(GTV_2.5)、40%阈值边界勾画法(GTV₄₀)、拟合公式勾画法(GTV_公式)对GTV勾画,其差异比较采用成组t检验。结果 GTV_vis、GTV_2.5 、GTV₄₀、GTV_公式勾画的平均体积分别为63.41、53.20、41.33、61.84 cm³,除GTV₄₀vis外(t=2.32,P=0.029),GTV_2.5、GTV_公式与GTV_vis均相似(t=1.05、0.91,P=0.305、0.370)。最大SUV值>6或<6、靶本底比值>3∶1或<3∶1对GTV₄₀和GTV_公式与GTV_vis差值均无影响(t=0.00、－0.34、0.92、0.35,P=1.000、0.746、0.374、0.737),但对GTV_2.5与GTV_vis差值有影响(t=－3.87、3.16,P=0.002、0.016)。结论 在GTV_2.5、GTV_公式能勾画出靶区情况下,GTV_公式、GTV_2.5和GTV_vis均相似且可用于临床,GTV_公式与GTV_vis最为接近;但GTV₄₀vis,应用时应谨慎;GTV_2.5明显受病灶SUV_max值及靶本底比值影响。     

Comparison of five segmentation tools for 18F-fluoro-deoxy-glucose-positron emission tomography-based target volume definition in head and neck cancer

PURPOSE: Target-volume delineation for radiation treatment to the head and neck area traditionally is based on physical examination, computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging. Additional molecular imaging with (18)F-fluoro-deoxy-glucose (FDG)-positron emission tomography (PET) may improve definition of the gross tumor volume (GTV). In this study, five methods for tumor delineation on FDG-PET are compared with CT-based delineation. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Seventy-eight patients with Stages II-IV squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck area underwent coregistered CT and FDG-PET. The primary tumor was delineated on CT, and five PET-based GTVs were obtained: visual interpretation, applying an isocontour of a standardized uptake value of 2.5, using a fixed threshold of 40% and 50% of the maximum signal intensity, and applying an adaptive threshold based on the signal-to-background ratio. Absolute GTV volumes were compared, and overlap analyses were performed. RESULTS: The GTV method of applying an isocontour of a standardized uptake value of 2.5 failed to provide successful delineation in 45% of cases. For the other PET delineation methods, volume and shape of the GTV were influenced heavily by the choice of segmentation tool. On average, all threshold-based PET-GTVs were smaller than on CT. Nevertheless, PET frequently detected significant tumor extension outside the GTV delineated on CT (15-34% of PET volume). CONCLUSIONS: The choice of segmentation tool for target-volume definition of head and neck cancer based on FDG-PET images is not trivial because it influences both volume and shape of the resulting GTV. With adequate delineation, PET may add significantly to CT- and physical examination-based GTV definition.     

The contribution of integrated PET/CT to the evolving definition of treatment volumes in radiation treatment planning in lung cancer

PURPOSE: Positron emission tomography (PET) with the glucose analog [18F]fluro-2-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG) has been accepted as a valuable tool for the staging of lung cancer, but the use of PET/CT in radiation treatment planning is still not yet clearly defined. By the use of (PET/computed tomography (CT) images in treatment planning, we were able to define a new gross treatment volume using anatomic biologic contour (ABC), delineated directly on PET/CT images. We prospectively addressed three issues in this study: (1) How to contour treatment volumes on PET/CT images, (2) Assessment of the degree of correlation between CT-based gross tumor volume/planning target volume (GTV/PTV) (GTV-CT and PTV-CT) and the corresponding PET/CT-based ABC treatment volumes (GTV-ABC and PTV-ABC), (3) Magnitude of interobserver (radiation oncologist planner) variability in the delineation of ABC treatment volumes (using our contouring method). METHODS AND MATERIALS: Nineteen patients with Stages II-IIIB non-small-cell lung cancer were planned for radiation treatments using a fully integrated PET/CT device. Median patient age was 74 years (range: 52-82 years), and median Karnofsky performance status was 70. Thermoplastic or vacuum-molded immobilization devices required for conformal radiation therapy were custom fabricated for the patient before the injection of [18]f-FDG. Integrated, coregistered PET/CT images were obtained and transferred to the radiation planning workstation (Xeleris). While the PET data remained obscured, a CT-based gross tumor volume (GTV-CT) was delineated by two independent observers. The PTV was obtained by adding a 1.5-cm margin around the GTV. The same volumes were recontoured using PET/CT data and termed GTV-ABC and PTV-ABC, correspondingly. RESULTS: We observed a distinct "halo" around areas of maximal standardized uptake value (SUV). The halo was identified by its distinct color at the periphery of all areas of maximal SUV uptake, independent of PET/CT gain ratio; the halo had an SUV of 2 +/- 0.4 and thickness of 2 mm +/- 0.5 mm. Whereas the center of our contoured treatment volume expressed the maximum SUV level, a steady decline of SUV was noted peripherally until SUV levels of 2 +/- 0.4 were reached at the peripheral edge of our contoured volume, coinciding with the observed halo region. This halo was always included in the contoured GTV-ABC. Because of the contribution of PET/CT to treatment planning, a clinically significant (> or =25%) treatment volume modification was observed between the GTV-CT and GTV-ABC in 10/19 (52%) cases, 5 of which resulted in an increase in GTV-ABC volume vs. GTV-CT. The modification of GTV between CT-based and PET/CT-based treatment planning resulted in an alteration of PTV exceeding 20% in 8 out of 19 patients (42%). Interobserver GTV variability decreased from a mean volume difference of 28.3 cm3 (in CT-based planning) to 9.12 cm3 (in PET/CT-based planning) with a respective decrease in standard deviation (SD) from 20.99 to 6.47. Interobserver PTV variability also decreased from 69.8 cm3 (SD +/- 82.76) in CT-based planning to 23.9 cm3 (SD +/- 15.31) with the use of PET/CT in planning. The concordance in treatment planning between observers was increased by the use of PET/CT; 16 (84%) had < or =10% difference from mean of GTVs using PET/CT compared to 7 cases (37%) using CT alone (p = 0.0035). Conclusion: Position emission tomography/CT-based radiation treatment planning is a useful tool resulting in modification of GTV in 52% and improvement of interobserver variability up to 84%. The use of PET/CT-based ABC can potentially replace the use of GTV. The anatomic biologic halo can be used for delineation of volumes.     

Correlation of positron emission tomography standard uptake value and pathologic specimen size in cancer of the head and neck

PURPOSE: To correlate positron emission tomography (PET) standard uptake value (SUV) with pathologic specimen size in patients with head-and-neck cancers. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Eighteen patients with Stage II-IVB head-and-neck cancer with 27 tumors who underwent PET and computed tomography (CT) imaging of the head and neck followed by surgical resection were selected for this study. Various SUV thresholds were examined, including the software default (SUV(def)), narrowing the window by 1 standard deviation (SD) of the maximum (SUV-1SD), and SUV cutoff values of 2.5 or greater (SUV2.5) and 40% or greater maximum (SUV40). Volumetric pathologic data were available for 12 patients. Tumor volumes based on pathologic examination (gold standard), CT, SUV(def), SUV-1SD, SUV2.5, and SUV40 were analyzed. RESULTS: PET identified five tumors not seen on CT. The sensitivity of PET for identifying primary tumors was 94% (17 of 18). The Sensitivity of PET for staging the neck was 90% (9 of 10), whereas the specificity was 78% (7 of 9). The SUV2.5 method was most likely to overestimate tumor volume, whereas SUV(def) and SUV-1SD were most likely to underestimate tumor volume. CONCLUSIONS: The PET scan provides more accurate staging of primary tumors and nodal metastases for patients with advanced head-and-neck cancer than CT alone. Compared with the gold standard, significant variability exists in volumes obtained by using various SUV thresholds. A combination of clinical, CT, and PET data should continue to be used for optimal treatment planning. The SUV40 method appears to offer the best compromise between accuracy and reducing the risk of underestimating tumor extent.     

Defining a radiotherapy target with positron emission tomography

PURPOSE: F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography (FDG-PET) imaging is now considered the most accurate clinical staging study for non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and is also important in the staging of multiple other malignancies. Gross tumor volume (GTV) definition for radiotherapy, however, is typically based entirely on computed tomographic data. We performed a series of phantom studies to determine an accurate and uniformly applicable method for defining a GTV with FDG-PET. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A model-based method was tested by a phantom study to determine a threshold, or unique cutoff of standardized uptake value based on body weight (standardized uptake value [SUV]) for FDG-PET based GTV definition. The degree to which mean target SUV, background FDG concentration, and target volume influenced that GTV definition were evaluated. A phantom was constructed consisting of a 9.0-L cylindrical tank. Glass spheres with volumes ranging from 12.2 to 291.0 cc were suspended within the tank, with a minimum separation of 4 cm between the edges of the spheres. The sphere volumes were selected based on the range of NSCLC patient tumor volumes seen in our clinic. The tank and spheres were filled with a variety of known concentrations of FDG in several experiments and then scanned using a General Electric Advance PET scanner. In the initial experiment, six spheres with identical volumes were filled with varying concentrations of FDG (mean SUV = 1.85 approximately 9.68) and suspended within a background bath of FDG at a similar concentration to that used in clinical practice (0.144 muCi/mL). The second experiment was identical to the first, but was performed at 0.144 and 0.036 muCi/mL background concentrations to determine the effect of background FDG concentration on sphere definition. In the third experiment, six spheres with volumes of 12.2 to 291.0 cc were filled with equal concentrations of FDG and suspended in a standard background FDG concentration of 0.144 muCi/mL. Sphere images in each experiment were auto-contoured (simulating a GTV) using the threshold SUV that yielded a volume matching that of the known sphere volume. A regressive function was constructed to represent the relationship between the threshold SUV and the mean target SUV. This function was then applied to define the GTV of 15 NSCLC patients. The GTV volumes were compared to those determined by a fixed image intensity threshold proposed by other investigators. RESULTS: There was a strong linear relationship between the threshold SUV and the mean target SUV. The linear regressive function derived was: threshold SUV = 0.307 x (mean target SUV) + 0.588. The background concentration and target volume indirectly affect the threshold SUV by way of their influence on the mean target SUV. We applied the linear regressive function, as well as a fixed image intensity threshold (42% of maximum intensity) to the sphere phantoms and 15 patients with NSCLC. The results indicated that a much smaller deviation occurred when the threshold SUV regressive function was utilized to estimate the phantom volume as compared to the fixed image intensity threshold. The average absolute difference between the two methods was 21% with respect to the true phantom volume. The deviation became even more pronounced when applied to true patient GTV volumes, with a mean difference between the two methods of 67%. This was largely due to a greater degree of heterogeneity in the SUV of tumors over phantoms. CONCLUSIONS: An FDG-PET-based GTV can be systematically defined using a threshold SUV according to the regressive function described above. The threshold SUV for defining the target is strongly dependent on the mean target SUV of the target, and can be uniquely determined through the proposed iteration process.     

FDG PET-CT与MRI在鼻咽癌原发灶靶区勾画中的对比研究

目的 对比研究FDG PET-CT不同勾画方法间及与MRI显示鼻咽原发灶靶区差异,探讨FDG PET-CT勾画鼻咽原发灶大体肿瘤体积(GTV)生物靶区的可行性。方法 50例初治鼻咽癌患者治疗前均行FDG PET-CT和MRI检查,先在MRI图像上勾画GTV得到GTV-MRI,然后在FDG PET-CT上分别用目测法或不同阈值法(30%、40%、50%SUV_max)勾画GTV得到GTV-PET_vis、GTV-PET₃₀、GTV-PET₄₀、GTV-PET₅₀。采用Wilcoxon检验GTV-PET不同方法间和GTV-MRI差异,以及不同T分期中不同勾画方法间差异。结果 全组GTV-MRI、GTV-PET_vis、GTV-PET₃₀、GTV-PET₄₀、GTV-PET₅₀分别为27.8、22.2、22.7、14.4、9.0 cm³,除GTV-PET_vis与GTV-PET₃₀间(Z=－0.05,P=0.958)以及T_1~2期(25例) GTV-MRI与GTV-PET_vis和GTV-PET₃₀相似外(Z=－0.93、－0.93,P=0.353、0.353),其余均不同(Z=－5.74~－2.09,P=0.000~0.037)。结论 应用FDG PET-CT不同方法勾画的GTV-PET均max为阈值自动勾画鼻咽原发灶GTV可实现生物代谢肿瘤体积范围勾画。     

18FDG] PET-CT-based intensity-modulated radiotherapy treatment planning of head and neck cancer

PURPOSE: To define the best threshold for tumor volume delineation of the (18) fluoro-2-deoxy-glucose positron emission tomography ((18)FDG-PET) signal for radiotherapy treatment planning of intensity-modulated radiotherapy (IMRT) in head and neck cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: In 25 patients with head-and-neck cancer, CT-based gross tumor volume (GTV(CT)) was delineated. After PET-CT image fusion, window level (L) was adapted to best fit the GTV(CT), and GTV(PET) was delineated. Tumor maximum (S) and background uptake (B) were measured, and the threshold of the background-subtracted tumor maximum uptake (THR) was used for PET signal segmentation. Gross tumor volumes were expanded to planning target volumes (PTVs) and analyzed. RESULTS: The mean value of S was 40 kBq/mL, S/B ratio was 16, and THR was 26%. The THR correlated with S (r = -0.752), but no correlation between THR and the S/B ratio was seen (r = -0.382). In 77% of cases, S was >30 kBq/mL, and in 23% it was 30% +/- 1.6% kBq/mL and 40% in tumors with S 相似文献   

18F-FDG PET-CT不同SUV阈值法与胰腺癌GTV靶区相关性研究

目的：随着精确放疗技术在胰腺癌治疗中应用越来越广泛,精确的图像引导技术也逐渐被关注。本研究旨在探讨不同标准化摄取值（standardized uptake values,SUV）阈值法勾画18氟-脱氧葡萄糖正电子发射断层扫描 CT（18 F-flu-orodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography CT,18 F-FDG PET-CT）图像上大体肿瘤体积（gross tumor volume,GTV）靶区与定位扫描增强 CT（contrast-enhanced CT,CECT）图像上 GTV 靶区的一致性,进一步明确 PET-CT 用于胰腺癌靶区勾画的最适方法,为胰腺癌精确放射治疗提供更多图像信息。方法选取2014-07-01—2015-06-30中国人民解放军空军总医院放疗科收治的39例经病理或临床确诊的胰腺恶性肿瘤患者。所有患者放疗前行18 F-FDG PET-CT 检查及腹部 CECT 扫描。依据不同阈值法测量出 PET-CT 图像显示肿块大小（GTV on PET-CT,PET／CT-GTV）。1）SUV相对百分比法：基于最大 SUV（maximum SUV,SUVmax ）,百分活性曲线所包绕的体素范围,包括 GTVpet15％、GTV-pet20％、GTVpet25％、GTVpet30％、GTVpet35％、GTVpet40％、GTVpet45％和 GTVpet50％;2）SUV 绝对值法：指 SUV 值超过预设值2．5所包绕的体素范围 GTVpet2．5）。测量出 CECT 上可见肿块大小（GTV on CT,CT-GTV）。将不同阈值法测出的 PET／CT-GTV 与相应 CT-GTV 进行对比分析。采用配对 t 检验对计量资料进行统计学分析。结果GTVpet 组随着百分比值增加体积在逐渐缩小。GTVpet25％、GTVpet30％和 GTVpet35％平均体积分别为（95．52±43．97）、（77．92±42.97）和（64．24±40．64）cm3;GTVpet2．5的平均体积为（18．6±26．56）cm3;而 GTVct 组平均体积为（80．09±46．07）cm3。对比分析 GTVpet 同 GTVct 体积间的一致性,结果显示 GTVpet30％与 GTVct 体积最为接近,P ＝0．996。同时基于 SUVmax30％阈值法勾画的 GTVpet30％体积较 GTVct 体积稍大,GTVpet30％组平均体积较 GTVct 体积大（0．22±5．2）cm3,95％ CI 为－10．31～10．77 cm3。GTVpet30％与 GTVct 间存在相关性,r ＝0．632,P ＜0．01;GTVpet2．5与GTVct 间不存在明显相关性,r＝0．257,P ＝0．21。胰腺癌18 F-FDG 代谢摄取普遍较低,采用 SUV2．5阈值法勾画 GTV-pet2．5普遍体积较小,甚至由于 SUVmax 都＜2．5而无法采用此方法勾画 GTV。结论采用 SUVmax30％阈值法勾画的GTVpet30％同 CECT 勾画的 GTVct 体积大小最为接近。但具体应用时根据个体代谢高低适度调整百分比一致性更好。     

Clinical implications of defining the gross tumor volume with combination of CT and 18FDG-positron emission tomography in non-small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE: To compare the planning target volume (PTV) definitions for computed tomography (CT) vs. positron emission tomography (PET) in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). METHODS AND MATERIALS: A total of 21 patients with NSCLC underwent three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy planning. All underwent a staging F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose-position emission tomography (18FDG-PET) scan and underwent treatment simulation using CT plus a separate planning 18FDG-PET scan. Three sets of target volumes were defined: Set 1, CT volumes (CT tumor + staging PET nodal disease); Set 2, PET volumes (planning PET tumor {gross tumor volume (GTV) = [(0.3069 x mean standardized uptake value) + 0.5853])}; Set 3, composite CT-PET volumes (fused CT-PET tumor). Sets 1 and 2 were compared using a matching index. Three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy plans were created using the Set 1 (CT) volumes; and coverage of the Set 3 (composite) volumes was evaluated. Separate three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy plans were designed for the Set 3 volumes. RESULTS: For the primary tumor GTV, the Set 1 (CT) volume was larger than the Set 2 (PET) volume in 48%, smaller in 33%, and equal in 19%. The mean matching index was 0.65 (35% CT-PET mismatch). Although quantitatively similar, the volumes differed qualitatively. The Set 3 (composite) volume was larger than either CT or PET alone in 62%, smaller in 24%, and equal in 14%. The dose-volume histogram parameters did not differ among the plans for Set 1 (CT) vs. Set 3 (composite) volumes. Small portions of the Set 3 PTV were significantly underdosed in 40% of cases using the CT-only plan. CONCLUSION: Computed tomography and PET are complementary and should be obtained in the treatment position and fused to define the GTV for NSCLC. Although the quantitative absolute target volume is sometimes similar, the qualitative target locations can be substantially different, leading to underdosage of the target when planning is done using CT alone without PET fusion.     

Observer variation in contouring gross tumor volume in patients with poorly defined non-small-cell lung tumors on CT: the impact of 18FDG-hybrid PET fusion.

PURPOSE: To quantify interobserver variation in gross tumor volume (GTV) localization using CT images for patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma and poorly defined tumors on CT and to determine whether variability would be reduced if coregistered 2-[18F]fluoro-2-deoxy-d-glucose (FDG)-hybrid positron emission tomography (PET) with CT images were used. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Prospectively, 30 patients with non-small-cell lung carcinoma had CT and FDG-hybrid PET examinations in radiation treatment position on the same day. Images were coregistered using eight fiducial markers. Guidelines were established for contouring GTVs. Three radiation oncologists performed localization independently. The coefficient of variation was used to assess interobserver variability. RESULTS: The size of the GTV defined showed great variation among observers. The mean ratios of largest to smallest GTV were 2.31 and 1.56 for CT only and for CT/FDG coregistered data, respectively. The addition of PET reduced this ratio in 23 of 30 cases and increased it in 7. The mean coefficient of variation for GTV based on the combined modalities was significantly smaller (p < 0.01) than that for CT data only. CONCLUSIONS: High observer variability in CT-based definition of the GTV can occur. A more consistent definition of the GTV can often be obtained if coregistered FDG-hybrid PET images are used.     

Variation in background intensity affects PET-based gross tumor volume delineation in non-small-cell lung cancer: The need for individualized information

Purpose

Efficient tumor volume delineation by the combined use of PET/CT scanning is necessary for the proper treatment of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). To understand the effect of variation in background intensity on PET-based gross tumor volume (GTV) delineation, we determined the background standard uptake values (SUVs) in normal lung, aorta (blood pool), and liver tissues and determined GTVs using different methods.

Methods

Thirty-seven previously untreated patients with pathologically confirmed NSCLC underwent PET/CT scanning with ¹⁸F-fluorodeoxyglucose (¹⁸F-FDG). To obtain ¹⁸F-FDG uptake values in normal tissues, regions of interest in the lung lobes (left upper, left lower, right upper, right middle, and right lower), aorta, and liver zones (left, intermediate, and right) were measured. The coefficient of variation (CV) of the SUV was measured for each normal structure. The CT-based GTV (GTV_CT) was considered as the standard to which all PET-based GTVs were compared, and the correlation coefficient was analyzed to compare GTV obtained by the various delineation methods. Linear and logarithmic regression analyses were used to determine the relationship between GTV_CT and GTV_PET.

Results

Normal lung tissue showed a significantly lower SUV and less stability than tissue of the aorta or liver. For the lung, aorta, and liver, the maximum SUV (SUV_max) was 0.82 ± 0.32, 2.35 ± 0.37, and 3.24 ± 0.50 (CV: 38.79%, 15.82%, and 15.30%) and average SUV (SUV_ave) was 0.49 ± 0.18, 1.68 ± 0.32, and 2.34 ± 0.36 (CV: 36.38%, 18.92%, and 15.44%), respectively. The SUVs of the lung varied from lobe to lobe. The GTV delineation method using the SUV_ave of the lung lobe in which the tumor was found as background in the source-to-background ratio (SBR) method showed the best correlation with the volume of CT-based GTV (r = 0.81).

Conclusions

Our results show vast variation in the SUV among normal tissues, as well as in the different lung lobes. The tumor volume delineated using the SBR method correlated well with the CT-based tumor volume. We conclude that it is reasonable and precise to contour GTV in patients with NSCLC after taking into account the background intensity of the lung lobe in which the tumor is found.     

Feasibility of pathology-correlated lung imaging for accurate target definition of lung tumors

PURPOSE: To accurately define the gross tumor volume (GTV) and clinical target volume (GTV plus microscopic disease spread) for radiotherapy, the pretreatment imaging findings should be correlated with the histopathologic findings. In this pilot study, we investigated the feasibility of pathology-correlated imaging for lung tumors, taking into account lung deformations after surgery. METHODS AND MATERIALS: High-resolution multislice computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET) scans were obtained for 5 patients who had non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) before lobectomy. At the pathologic examination, the involved lung lobes were inflated with formalin, sectioned in parallel slices, and photographed, and microscopic sections were obtained. The GTVs were delineated for CT and autocontoured at the 42% PET level, and both were compared with the histopathologic volumes. The CT data were subsequently reformatted in the direction of the macroscopic sections, and the corresponding fiducial points in both images were compared. Hence, the lung deformations were determined to correct the distances of microscopic spread. RESULTS: In 4 of 5 patients, the GTV(CT) was, on average, 4 cm(3) ( approximately 53%) too large. In contrast, for 1 patient (with lymphangitis carcinomatosa), the GTV(CT) was 16 cm(3) ( approximately 40%) too small. The GTV(PET) was too small for the same patient. Regarding deformations, the volume of the well-inflated lung lobes on pathologic examination was still, on average, only 50% of the lobe volume on CT. Consequently, the observed average maximal distance of microscopic spread (5 mm) might, in vivo, be as large as 9 mm. CONCLUSIONS: Our results have shown that pathology-correlated lung imaging is feasible and can be used to improve target definition. Ignoring deformations of the lung might result in underestimation of the microscopic spread.     

Impact of hybrid fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography/computed tomography on radiotherapy planning in esophageal and non-small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to investigate the impact of a hybrid fluorodeoxyglucose positron-emission tomography/computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT) scanner in radiotherapy planning for esophageal and non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). METHODS AND MATERIALS: A total of 30 patients (16 with esophageal cancer, 14 with NSCLC) underwent an FDG-PET/CT for radiotherapy planning purposes. Noncontrast total-body spiral CT scans were obtained first, followed immediately by FDG-PET imaging which was automatically co-registered to the CT scan. A physician not involved in the patients' original treatment planning designed a gross tumor volume (GTV) based first on the CT dataset alone, while blinded to the FDG-PET dataset. Afterward, the physician designed a GTV based on the fused PET/CT dataset. To standardize PET GTV margin definition, background liver PET activity was standardized in all images. The CT-based and PET/CT-based GTVs were then quantitatively compared by way of an index of conformality, which is the ratio of the intersection of the two GTVs to their union. RESULTS: The mean index of conformality was 0.44 (range, 0.00-0.70) for patients with NSCLC and 0.46 (range, 0.13-0.80) for patients with esophageal cancer. In 10 of the 16 (62.5%) esophageal cancer patients, and in 12 of the 14 (85.7%) NSCLC patients, the addition of the FDG-PET data led to the definition of a smaller GTV. CONCLUSION: The incorporation of a hybrid FDG-PET/CT scanner had an impact on the radiotherapy planning of esophageal cancer and NSCLC. In future studies, we recommend adoption of a conformality index for a more comprehensive comparison of newer treatment planning imaging modalities to conventional options.     

Maximum-intensity volumes for fast contouring of lung tumors including respiratory motion in 4DCT planning

PURPOSE: To assess the accuracy of maximum-intensity volumes (MIV) for fast contouring of lung tumors including respiratory motion. METHODS AND MATERIALS: Four-dimensional computed tomography (4DCT) data of 10 patients were acquired. Maximum-intensity volumes were constructed by assigning the maximum Hounsfield unit in all CT volumes per geometric voxel to a new, synthetic volume. Gross tumor volumes (GTVs) were contoured on all CT volumes, and their union was constructed. The GTV with all its respiratory motion was contoured on the MIV as well. Union GTVs and GTVs including motion were compared visually. Furthermore, planning target volumes (PTVs) were constructed for the union of GTVs and the GTV on MIV. These PTVs were compared by centroid position, volume, geometric extent, and surface distance. RESULTS: Visual comparison of GTVs demonstrated failure of the MIV technique for 5 of 10 patients. For adequate GTV(MIV)s, differences between PTVs were <1.0 mm in centroid position, 5% in volume, +/-5 mm in geometric extent, and +/-0.5 +/- 2.0 mm in surface distance. These values represent the uncertainties for successful MIV contouring. CONCLUSION: Maximum-intensity volumes are a good first estimate for target volume definition including respiratory motion. However, it seems mandatory to validate each individual MIV by overlaying it on a movie loop displaying the 4DCT data and editing it for possible inadequate coverage of GTVs on additional 4DCT motion states.     

Impact of computed tomography and F-deoxyglucose coincidence detection emission tomography image fusion for optimization of conformal radiotherapy in non–small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE: To report a retrospective study concerning the impact of fused 18F-fluoro-deoxy-D-glucose (FDG)-hybrid positron emission tomography (PET) and CT images on three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy planning for patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. METHODS AND MATERIALS: A total of 101 patients consecutively treated for Stage I-III non-small-cell lung cancer were studied. Each patient underwent CT and FDG-hybrid PET for simulation treatment in the same treatment position. Images were coregistered using five fiducial markers. Target volume delineation was initially performed on the CT images, and the corresponding FDG-PET data were subsequently used as an overlay to the CT data to define the target volume. RESULTS: 18F-fluoro-deoxy-D-glucose-PET identified previously undetected distant metastatic disease in 8 patients, making them ineligible for curative conformal radiotherapy (1 patient presented with some positive uptake corresponding to concomitant pulmonary tuberculosis). Another patient was ineligible for curative treatment because the fused PET-CT images demonstrated excessively extensive intrathoracic disease. The gross tumor volume (GTV) was decreased by CT-PET image fusion in 21 patients (23%) and was increased in 24 patients (26%). The GTV reduction was > or = 25% in 7 patients because CT-PET image fusion reduced the pulmonary GTV in 6 patients (3 patients with atelectasis) and the mediastinal nodal GTV in 1 patient. The GTV increase was > or = 25% in 14 patients owing to an increase in the pulmonary GTV in 11 patients (4 patients with atelectasis) and detection of occult mediastinal lymph node involvement in 3 patients. Of 81 patients receiving a total dose of > or = 60 Gy at the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements point, after CT-PET image fusion, the percentage of total lung volume receiving >20 Gy increased in 15 cases and decreased in 22. The percentage of total heart volume receiving >36 Gy increased in 8 patients and decreased in 14. The spinal cord volume receiving at least 45 Gy (2 patients) decreased. Multivariate analysis showed that tumor with atelectasis was the single independent factor that resulted in a significant effect on the modification of the size of the GTV by FDG-PET: tumor with atelectasis (with vs. without atelectasis, p = 0.0001). CONCLUSION: The results of our study have confirmed that integrated hybrid PET/CT in the treatment position and coregistered images have an impact on treatment planning and management of non-small-cell lung cancer. However, FDG images using dedicated PET scanners and respiration-gated acquisition protocols could improve the PET-CT image coregistration. Furthermore, the impact on treatment outcome remains to be demonstrated.     

F-Fluorodeoxyglucose Positron Emission Tomography-Based Assessment of Local Failure Patterns in Non–Small-Cell Lung Cancer Treated With Definitive Radiotherapy

PURPOSE: To assess the pattern of local failure using (18)F-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG)-positron emission tomography (PET) scans after radiotherapy (RT) in non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients treated with definitive RT whose gross tumor volumes (GTVs) were defined with the aid of pre-RT PET data. METHOD AND MATERIALS: The data from 26 patients treated with involved-field RT who had local failure and a post-RT PET scan were analyzed. The patterns of failure were visually scored and defined as follows: (1) within the GTV/planning target volume (PTV); (2) within the GTV, PTV, and outward; (3) within the PTV and outward; and (4) outside the PTV. Local failure was also evaluated as originating from nodal areas vs. the primary tumor. RESULTS: We analyzed 34 lesions. All 26 patients had recurrence originating from their primary tumor. Of the 34 lesions, 8 (24%) were in nodal areas, 5 of which (63%) were marginal or geographic misses compared with only 1 (4%) of the 26 primary recurrences (p = 0.001). Of the eight primary tumors that had received a dose of <60 Gy, six (75%) had failure within the GTV and two (25%) at the GTV margin. At doses of > or = 60 Gy, 6 (33%) of 18 had failure within the GTV and 11 (61%) at the GTV margin, and 1 (6%) was a marginal miss (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION: At lower doses, the pattern of recurrences was mostly within the GTV, suggesting that the dose might have been a factor for tumor control. At greater doses, the treatment failures were mostly at the margin of the GTV. This suggests that visual incorporation of PET data for GTV delineation might be inadequate, and more sophisticated approaches of PET registration should be evaluated.     

MRI to delineate the gross tumor volume of nasopharyngeal cancers: which sequences and planes should be used?

Background

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been found to be better than computed tomography for defining the extent of primary gross tumor volume (GTV) in advanced nasopharyngeal cancer. It is routinely applied for target delineation in planning radiotherapy. However, the specific MRI sequences/planes that should be used are unknown.

Methods

Twelve patients with nasopharyngeal cancer underwent primary GTV evaluation with gadolinium-enhanced axial T1 weighted image (T1) and T2 weighted image (T2), coronal T1, and sagittal T1 sequences. Each sequence was registered with the planning computed tomography scans. Planning target volumes (PTVs) were derived by uniform expansions of the GTVs. The volumes encompassed by the various sequences/planes, and the volumes common to all sequences/planes, were compared quantitatively and anatomically to the volume delineated by the commonly used axial T1-based dataset.

Results

Addition of the axial T2 sequence increased the axial T1-based GTV by 12% on average (p = 0.004), and composite evaluations that included the coronal T1 and sagittal T1 planes increased the axial T1-based GTVs by 30% on average (p = 0.003). The axial T1-based PTVs were increased by 20% by the additional sequences (p = 0.04). Each sequence/plane added unique volume extensions. The GTVs common to all the T1 planes accounted for 38% of the total volumes of all the T1 planes. Anatomically, addition of the coronal and sagittal-based GTVs extended the axial T1-based GTV caudally and cranially, notably to the base of the skull.

Conclusions

Adding MRI planes and sequences to the traditional axial T1 sequence yields significant quantitative and anatomically important extensions of the GTVs and PTVs. For accurate target delineation in nasopharyngeal cancer, we recommend that GTVs be outlined in all MRI sequences/planes and registered with the planning computed tomography scans.     

Effects of respiration-averaged computed tomography on positron emission tomography/computed tomography quantification and its potential impact on gross tumor volume delineation

PURPOSE: Patient respiratory motion can cause image artifacts in positron emission tomography (PET) from PET/computed tomography (CT) and change the quantification of PET for thoracic patients. In this study, respiration-averaged CT (ACT) was used to remove the artifacts, and the changes in standardized uptake value (SUV) and gross tumor volume (GTV) were quantified. METHODS AND MATERIALS: We incorporated the ACT acquisition in a PET/CT session for 216 lung patients, generating two PET/CT data sets for each patient. The first data set (PET(HCT)/HCT) contained the clinical PET/CT in which PET was attenuation corrected with a helical CT (HCT). The second data set (PET(ACT)/ACT) contained the PET/CT in which PET was corrected with ACT. We quantified the differences between the two datasets in image alignment, maximum SUV (SUV(max)), and GTV contours. RESULTS: Of the patients, 68% demonstrated respiratory artifacts in the PET(HCT), and for all patients the artifact was removed or reduced in the corresponding PET(ACT). The impact of respiration artifact was the worst for lesions less than 50 cm(3) and located below the dome of the diaphragm. For lesions in this group, the mean SUV(max) difference, GTV volume change, shift in GTV centroid location, and concordance index were 21%, 154%, 2.4 mm, and 0.61, respectively. CONCLUSION: This study benchmarked the differences between the PET data with and without artifacts. It is important to pay attention to the potential existence of these artifacts during GTV contouring, as such artifacts may increase the uncertainties in the lesion volume and the centroid location.     

基于PET-CT的SUV值与基于4DCT的EE时相勾画胸段食管癌GTV相关性分析

目的 探讨基于PET-CT图像SUV阈值≥2.0及20%SUV_max与基于4DCT的EE时相图像勾画胸段食管癌原发肿瘤GTV相关性因素。方法 22例胸段食管癌患者序贯完成3DCT、4DCT、FDG PET-CT 胸部定位扫描。基于4DCT的EE时相图像勾画GTV_50%。基于SUV≥2.0、20%SUV_max分别在PET图像上勾画IGTV_PET并分别命名为IGTV_PET2.0、IGTV_PET20%。获得GTV_50%最大横径、GTV_50%大小、上下方向位移、三维运动矢量和SUV_max。结果 IGTV_PET2.0、IGTV_PET20%与GTV_50%间体积比与GTV_50%最大横径、GTV_50%大小、上下方向位移、三维运动矢量均无相关性(P=0.055~0.932);IGTV_PET2.0、IGTV_PET20%与GTV_50%间CI与GTV_50%最大横径、GTV_50%大小、上下方向位移、三维运动矢量均有相关性(P=0.005~0.033);IGTV_PET20%与GTV_50%间体积比、CI与SUV_max均有相关性(P=0.001、0.016)。结论 基于PET-CT图像构建的IGTV并不能客观真实反映肿瘤空间位置变化及运动信息,而且单一数值的SUV阈值选取也是不可靠的。构建食管癌原发肿瘤靶区时应依据4DCT所构建IGTV纠正PET-CT所构建IGTV边界及其位置。     

Clinical utility of integrated positron emission tomography/computed tomography imaging in the clinical management and radiation treatment planning of locally advanced rectal cancer

PurposeThe role of 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography-computed tomography (FDG-PET/CT) in the staging and radiation treatment planning of locally advanced rectal cancer is ill defined. We studied the role of integrated PET/CT in the staging, radiation treatment planning, and use as an imaging biomarker in rectal cancer patients undergoing multimodality treatment.Methods and materialsThirty-four consecutive patients with T3-4N0-2M0-1 rectal adenocarcinoma underwent FDG-PET/CT scanning for staging and radiation treatment planning. Planned clinical management was compared before and after the addition of PET/CT information. Three radiation oncologists independently delineated CT-based gross tumor volumes (GTVCT) using clinical information and CT imaging data, as well as gradient autosegmented PET/CT-based GTVs (GTV_PETCT). The mean GTV, interobserver concordance index (CCI), and proximal and distal margins were compared. The maximal standardized uptake value (SUVmax), metabolic tumor volume (MTV), and dual-time point PET parameters were correlated with clinicopathologic endpoints.ResultsClinical management was altered by PET/CT in 18% (n = 6) of patients with clinical upstaging in 6 patients and radiation treatment planning altered in 5 patients. Of the 30 evaluable preoperative patients, the mean GTV_PETCT was significantly smaller than the mean GTV_CT volumes: 88.1 versus 102.8 cc (P = .03). PET/CT significantly increased interobserver CCI in contouring GTV compared with CT only-based contouring: 0.56 versus 0.38 (P < .001). The proximal and distal margins were altered by a mean of 0.4 ± 0.24 cm and −0.25 ± 0.18 cm, respectively. MTV was inversely associated with 2-year progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS): smaller MTVs (< 33 cc) had superior 2-year PFS (86% vs 60%, P = .04) and OS (100% vs 45%, P < .01) compared with larger MTVs (> 33 cc). SUVmax and dual-time point PET parameters did not correlate with any endpoints.ConclusionsFDG-PET/CT imaging impacts overall clinical management and is useful in the radiation treatment planning of rectal cancer patients by decreasing interobserver variability in contouring target boost volumes. Pretreatment MTV may provide useful prognostic information and requires further study.