Autocrine and paracrine roles of sphingosine-1-phosphate.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid metabolite that has been implicated in many biological processes, including cell migration, survival, proliferation, angiogenesis and immune and allergic responses. S1P levels inside cells are regulated tightly by the balance between its synthesis by sphingosine kinases and degradation by S1P lyases and S1P phosphatases. Activation of sphingosine kinase by any of a variety of agonists increases S1P levels, which in turn can function intracellularly as a second messenger or in an autocrine and/or paracrine fashion to activate and signal through S1P receptors present on the surface of the cell. This review summarizes recent findings on the roles of S1P as a mediator of the actions of cytokines, growth factors and hormones.     

阿托伐他汀在1-磷酸鞘氨醇诱导心肌细胞肥大中的作用

目的研究阿托伐他汀对1-磷酸鞘氨醇(S1P)诱导乳鼠心肌细胞肥大反应中的作用。方法原代培养乳鼠心肌细胞,测定心肌细胞体积和[3H]-亮氨酸掺入量作为心肌细胞肥大的指标。乳鼠心肌细胞使用不同浓度的阿托伐他汀(atorvastatin),加入S1P,[3H]-亮氨酸掺入量作为心肌细胞蛋白摄取量;分别用qPCR和Western blot法检测心肌细胞的β-肌球蛋白(β-MHC)的mRNA和蛋白质表达水平;用qPCR检测心肌细胞的心房利钠肽(ANF)的mRNA表达水平。结果与S1P组比较,阿托伐他汀10μmol/L处理组[3H]-亮氨酸掺入率减少[(234.89%±31.23%)比(342.23%±31.60%),P=0.205],β-MHC的mRNA和蛋白表达水平下降[(0.59±0.14)比(0.84±0.20),P=0.318]和[(0.55±0.09)比(0.98±0.15),P=0.223],ANF的mRNA表达水平降低[(0.51±0.13)比(0.76±0.19),P=0.445];与S1P组比较,阿托伐他汀20μmol/L处理组[3H]-亮氨酸掺入率明显减少[(189.07%±17.69%)比(342.23%±31.60%),P<0.01],β-MHC的mRNA和蛋白表达水平显著下降[(0.50±0.12)比(0.84±0.20),P<0.01]和[(0.35±0.08)比(0.98±0.15),P<0.01],ANF的mRNA水平明显降低[(0.47±0.12)比(0.76±0.19),P<0.01]。结论阿托伐他汀可抑制S1P诱导的心肌细胞肥大,并可减少S1P诱导的β-MHC和ANF表达。     

The immunosuppressant drug FTY720 inhibits cytosolic phospholipase A2 independently of sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors

FTY720 is a potent immunomodulator drug that inhibits the egress of lymphocytes from secondary lymphoid tissues and thymus. FTY720 is phosphorylated in vivo by sphingosine kinase 2 to FTY720-phosphate, which acts as a potent sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptor agonist. However, in contrast to S1P, FTY720 has no effect on mast-cell degranulation, yet significantly reduces antigen-induced secretion of PGD2 and cysteinyl-leukotriene. Unexpectedly, this effect of FTY720 was independent of its phosphorylation and S1P receptor functions. The rate-limiting step in the biosynthesis of all eicosanoids is the phospholipase A2 (PLA2)-mediated release of arachidonic acid from glycerol phospholipids. Although FTY720 also reduced arachidonic acid release in response to antigen, it had no effect on translocation of cPLA2 or ERK1/2 activation, suggesting that it does not interfere with FcepsilonRI-mediated events leading to cPLA2 activation. Remarkably, however, FTY720 drastically inhibited recombinant cPLA2alpha activity, whereas FTY720-phosphate, sphingosine, or S1P had no effect. This study has uncovered a unique action of FTY720 as an inhibitor of cPLA2alpha and hence on production of all eicosanoids. Our results have important implications for the potential therapeutic mechanism of action of FTY720 in eicosanoid-driven inflammatory disorders such as asthma and multiple sclerosis.     

Muscular and cardiac adenosine-induced pain is mediated by A1receptors

Objectives. This study attempted to establish whether bamiphylline, a selective antagonist of A₁adenosine receptors, prevents the algogenic effects of adenosine in humans.Background. Experimental findings indicate that the sympathoexcitatory response elicited by adenosine is mediated by A₁receptors.Methods. An intrailiac infusion of increasing doses (from 125 to 2,000 μg/min) of adenosine was given to 20 patients. Adenosine infusion was then repeated after intrailiac infusion of either bamiphylline or saline solution. In 14 other patients with angina, increasing doses of adenosine (from 108 to 1,728 μg/min) were infused into the left coronary artery. Adenosine infusion was then repeated after the intravenous infusion of either bamiphylline or placebo. Coronary blood flow velocity was monitored by a Doppler catheter. Data relative to pain severity are expressed as median and all other data as mean value ± 1 SD.Results. Bamiphylline prolonged the time to pain onset caused by the intrailiac adenosine infusion from 444 ± 96 to 749 ± 120 s (p < 0.001) and reduced pain severity from 45 to 24 mm (p < 0.01). After placebo infusion, the time to pain onset and pain severity were similar to that of baseline (428 ± 112 vs. 430 ± 104 s, p = 0.87 and 44 vs. 43 mm, p = 0.67, respectively). Bamiphylline prolonged the time to pain onset caused by intracoronary adenosine infusion from 519 ± 128 to 603 ± 146 s (p < 0.01) and reduced pain severity from 58 to 28 mm (p < 0.02). After placebo infusion, the time to pain onset and pain severity were similar to that at baseline (542 ± 87 vs. 551 ± 79 s, p = 0.14 and 55 vs. 50 mm, p = 0.61). Maximal coronary blood flow velocities before and after bamiphylline administration were similar (47 ± 22 vs. 49 ± 24 cm/s, p = 0.36) as well as before and after placebo administration (40 ± 20 vs. 41 ± 20 cm/s, p = 0.07).Conclusions. Bamiphylline reduces adenosine-induced muscular and cardiac pain but does not affect adenosine-induced coronary vasodilation. These findings indicate that at the dose used in this study, bamiphylline does not detectably block vascular A₂-receptor-mediated adenosine effects in humans, which suggests that the muscular and cardiac algogenic effects of adenosine are mediated mainly by A₁receptors.     

Low body temperature governs the decline of circulating lymphocytes during hibernation through sphingosine-1-phosphate

Hibernation is an energy-conserving behavior consisting of periods of inhibited metabolism ('torpor') with lowered body temperature. Torpor bouts are interspersed by arousal periods, in which metabolism increases and body temperature returns to euthermia. In deep torpor, the body temperature typically decreases to 2-10 °C, and major physiological and immunological changes occur. One of these alterations constitutes an almost complete depletion of circulating lymphocytes that is reversed rapidly upon arousal. Here we show that torpor induces the storage of lymphocytes in secondary lymphoid organs in response to a temperature-dependent drop in plasma levels of sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Regulation of lymphocyte numbers was mediated through the type 1 S1P receptor (S1P(1)), because administration of a specific antagonist (W146) during torpor (in a Syrian hamster at ～8 °C) precluded restoration of lymphocyte numbers upon subsequent arousal. Furthermore, S1P release from erythrocytes via ATP-binding cassette (ABC)-transporters was significantly inhibited at low body temperature (4 °C) but was restored upon rewarming. Reversible lymphopenia also was observed during daily torpor (in a Djungarian hamster at ± 25 °C), during forced hypothermia in anesthetized (summer-active) hamsters (at ± 9 °C), and in a nonhibernator (rat at ～19 °C). Our results demonstrate that lymphopenia during hibernation in small mammals is driven by body temperature, via altered plasma S1P levels. S1P is recognized as an important bioactive lipid involved in regulating several other physiological processes as well and may be an important factor regulating additional physiological processes in hibernation as well as in mediating the effects of therapeutic hypothermia in patients.     

Cell proliferation and survival induced by Toll-like receptors is antagonized by type I IFNs

TRIF is an adaptor protein associated with the signaling by Toll-like receptor (TLR)3 and TLR4 for the induction of type I IFNs. Here, we demonstrate a mechanism by which TLR signaling controls cell proliferation and survival. We show that TLR3 and TLR4 can induce cell cycle entry via TRIF, which targets the cell cycle inhibitor p27(kip1) for relocalization, phosphorylation by cyclin/cdk complexes, and proteasome degradation. These events are antagonized by type I IFN induced by the TRIF pathway. Furthermore, in human dendritic cells treated with TLR3, TLR4, or TLR5 ligands, we demonstrate that IFN signaling modulates p27(kip1) degradation and apoptosis, identifying an immunoregulatory "switching" function of type I IFNs. These findings reveal a previously uncharacterized function of TLR signaling in cell proliferation and survival.     

Self-inhibition of steroid secretion by amphibian adrenocortical cells is not mediated through glucocorticoid receptors

To investigate a possible direct action of glucocorticoids on adrenal steroidogenesis, the effect of corticosterone on the conversion of pregnenolone into various metabolites by frog adrenal tissue was examined. Frog interrenal slices were incubated with [3H]pregnenolone (1 mCi/ml) and the various labelled metabolites analysed by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography. With the methanol gradient used, five identified steroids were resolved: progesterone, 11-deoxycorticosterone, corticosterone, 18-hydroxycorticosterone and aldosterone. Corticosterone (10 micrograms/ml) induced a 45-80% decrease in all steroids synthesized from [3H]pregnenolone. In contrast, the glucocorticoid agonist dexamethasone did not reduce the rate of conversion of pregnenolone into its metabolites. In addition, the inhibitory effect of corticosterone was not reversed by the specific glucocorticoid antagonist RU 43044. These results show that corticosterone exerts a direct inhibitory effect on adrenal steroid secretion. In addition, our data indicate that the ultra-short regulation induced by corticosterone is not mediated through glucocorticoid receptors.     

Angiogenesis induced by electrical stimulation is mediated by angiotensin II and VEGF

OBJECTIVE: Physiological angiogenesis in skeletal muscle is an adaptive response to physical training and electrical stimulation. This study investigated the role of angiotensin II (Ang II) in regulating both angiogenesis and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) protein expression induced by electrical stimulation. METHODS: The right tibialis anterior (TA) and extensor digitorum longus (EDL) muscles of Sprague-Dawley rats were stimulated for 8 hours per day for 7 days. The contralateral muscles served as controls. Two days before the surgery and throughout the stimulation protocol, the rats received either lisinopril or losartan in their drinking water. Rats without any drug treatment were used as control. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis were performed to identify the source and quantify the VEGF protein expression in these muscles. The relationship between angiogenesis and VEGF expression was explored using a VEGF-neutralizing antibody. RESULTS: Chronic electrical stimulation of the skeletal muscles led to significant increases in vessel density (14% and 30% for EDL and TA, respectively) within 7 days. In addition, stimulation increased VEGF protein levels in the stimulated muscles. Both lisinopril and losartan blocked elevation in VEGF expression and inhibited the angiogenesis induced by stimulation. VEGF neutralization also inhibited angiogenesis, confirming the relationship between Ang II, VEGF, and vessel growth. CONCLUSION: The current study suggests a pathway involving angiotensin II receptors (AT1) and VEGF in electrically stimulated angiogenesis.     

Signal transduction through Cys-loop receptors is mediated by the nonspecific bumping of closely apposed domains

One of the most fundamental questions in the field of Cys-loop receptors (pentameric ligand-gated ion channels, pLGICs) is how the affinity for neurotransmitters and the conductive/nonconductive state of the transmembrane pore are correlated despite the ∼60-Å distance between the corresponding domains. Proposed mechanisms differ, but they all converge into the idea that interactions between wild-type side chains across the extracellular–transmembrane-domain (ECD–TMD) interface are crucial for this phenomenon. Indeed, the successful design of fully functional chimeras that combine intact ECD and TMD modules from different wild-type pLGICs has commonly been ascribed to the residual conservation of sequence that exists at the level of the interfacial loops even between evolutionarily distant parent channels. Here, using mutagenesis, patch-clamp electrophysiology, and radiolabeled-ligand binding experiments, we studied the effect of eliminating this residual conservation of sequence on ion-channel function and cell-surface expression. From our results, we conclude that proper state interconversion (“gating”) does not require conservation of sequence—or even physicochemical properties—across the ECD–TMD interface. Wild-type ECD and TMD side chains undoubtedly interact with their surroundings, but the interactions between them—straddling the interface—do not seem to be more important for gating than those occurring elsewhere in the protein. We propose that gating of pLGICs requires, instead, that the overall structure of the interfacial loops be conserved, and that their relative orientation and distance be the appropriate ones for changes in one side to result in changes in the other, in a phenomenon akin to the nonspecific “bumping” of closely apposed domains.

Ion channels interconvert (“gate”) among ion-permeable and ion-impermeable conformations, and in so doing not only does the transmembrane pore alternately constrict and expand, but also, cavities throughout the protein appear, collapse, or change shape. The state-dependent binding of ligands to these cavities offers any ion channel a means to bias its conformational equilibria. In the particular case of neurotransmitter-gated ion channels, the state-dependent binding of endogenous ligands (neurotransmitters) to a subset of these cavities (the “orthosteric binding sites”) constitutes the physiological mechanism of channel activation.Central to this mechanism is the idea that binding-site affinities and the conductive/nonconductive state of the pore are correlated (1). For example, if the pore adopts the closed-type nonconductive conformation, neurotransmitters bind with low affinity, and if the pore adopts the open, ion-conductive conformation, neurotransmitters bind with high affinity. The conformations of the neurotransmitter-binding sites and the transmembrane pore are, thus, interdependent; they are said to be “coupled.” In the superfamily of pentameric ligand-gated ion channels (pLGICs, also known as “Cys-loop” receptors), the orthosteric neurotransmitter-binding sites and the transmembrane pore map to different modules of the protein—the extracellular domain (ECD) and the transmembrane domain (TMD), respectively—and are separated by a distance of ∼60 Å (2, 3). The occurrence (in invertebrates) of soluble acetylcholine (ACh)-binding proteins (4) with high homology to the ECD of pLGICs (5) and the finding that fully functional chimeric constructs can often be generated by combining the ECD and TMD of different members of the superfamily (e.g., refs. 6–14) make the tightly coupled behavior of these two seemingly independent modules all the more remarkable.It has been suggested that interactions between wild-type side chains across the ECD–TMD interface are required for this transdomain communication to occur (e.g., refs. 3, 7, 9, 11, 13–20), a notion that is consistent with the observation that the most conserved residues in the superfamily are clustered in this very region (21). The ECD and the TMD meet at the extracellular surface of the membrane, where three loops between ECD β-strands (loops 2, 7, and 9) and the extracellular projection of the M1 α-helix (the pre-M1 linker and the first few residues of M1) closely approach a loop between two TMD α-helices (the M2–M3 linker) and the extracellular projection of the M4 α-helix (the C-terminal tail) (3) (Fig. 1). The particular aspects that need to be conserved in these structural elements to ensure a proper extracellular–intracellular signal transduction are unknown, and proposals (past and recent) as to their nature have covered the entire range of possibilities: from intact stretches of amino acids to just a few residues, and from packing, “lock-and-key” type of considerations to electrostatic ones (3, 9, 13–20, 24).Open in a separate windowFig. 1.The ECD–TMD interface of pLGICs. (A) Membrane-threading pattern common to all pLGIC subunits. (B) Structural elements at the ECD–TMD interface mapped onto an X-ray crystal-structure model of α1-GluCl from C. elegans (PDB ID code 3RHW; ref. 22). The residues forming the C-terminal tail, at the end of M4, were not built in this atomic model. Furthermore, the M3–M4 linker of the crystallized construct was shortened to facilitate crystal formation. In all the constructs studied in this work, the M3–M4 linker retained its full-length, wild-type sequence. Molecular images were made with Visual Molecular Dynamics (VMD; ref. 23) using ribbon representation. (C) Sequence alignment of the structural elements at the ECD–TMD-interface of the α7-AChR from chicken and β-GluCl from C. elegans. Loops 2, 7, 9, and the pre-M1 linker map to the ECD, whereas the N terminus of M1, the M2–M3 linker, and the C-terminal tail map to the TMD. Identical residues are indicated in red.Here, we set out to determine where along this wide range of possibilities pLGICs lie. To this end, we studied the effect of extensive mutagenesis to the ECD–TMD interfacial residues on ion-channel function and cell-surface expression. From our results, we conclude that proper state interconversion does not require conservation of sequence or physicochemical properties across the ECD–TMD interface. At variance with current models, we propose that gating of pLGICs (defined broadly, here, as all closed ⇌ open ⇌ desensitized state interconversions) only requires that the overall structure of the interfacial loops be conserved, and that their relative orientation and distance be the appropriate ones for changes in one side to result in changes in the other, in a phenomenon that could be described as the nonspecific “bumping” of closely apposed domains. Not every sequence at the interface satisfied these seemingly loose requirements, however, and we found the relationship between amino acid sequence and expression/function in this region to be far from straightforward. We discuss these findings in the context of evolutionary considerations for proteins whose signal-sensing and effector domains are covalently fused.     

The antiangiogenic activity of cleaved high molecular weight kininogen is mediated through binding to endothelial cell tropomyosin

Conformationally altered proteins and protein fragments derived from the extracellular matrix and hemostatic system may function as naturally occurring angiogenesis inhibitors. One example of such a protein is cleaved high molecular weight kininogen (HKa). HKa inhibits angiogenesis by inducing apoptosis of proliferating endothelial cells, effects mediated largely by HKa domain 5. However, the mechanisms underlying the antiangiogenic activity of HKa have not been characterized, and its binding site on proliferating endothelial cells has not been defined. Here, we report that the induction of endothelial cell apoptosis by HKa, as well as the antiangiogenic activity of HKa in the chick chorioallantoic membrane, was inhibited completely by antitropomyosin monoclonal antibody TM-311. TM-311 also blocked the high-affinity Zn2+-dependent binding of HKa to both purified tropomyosin and proliferating endothelial cells. Confocal microscopic analysis of endothelial cells stained with monoclonal antibody TM-311, as well as biotin labeling of cell surface proteins on intact endothelial cells, revealed that tropomyosin exposure was enhanced on the surface of proliferating cells. These studies demonstrate that the antiangiogenic effects of HKa depend on high-affinity binding to endothelial cell tropomyosin.     

Angiogenic synergy of bFGF and VEGF is antagonized by Angiopoietin-2 in a modified in vivo Matrigel assay

A murine modification of the Matrigel chamber assay originally developed for use on rats is presented. This modified assay permits improved quantification due to subcutaneous Matrigel implants of constant shape and volume. We have quantitatively assessed the angiogenic potential of the growth factors basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), VEGF, and Angiopoietin-2 (Ang-2) with special emphasis on their mutual interactions. A reproducible dose-response relationship for bFGF was established for doses between 150 and 1000 ng per chamber, whereas VEGF did not display angiogenic activity on its own in the tested dose of up to 200 ng per chamber. Conversely, we found a strong synergistic action of bFGF and VEGF when combined in a 3:1 ratio. Two other combinations (ratios) with greater VEGF doses were also tested, but the synergistic effect was only observed when 50 ng of VEGF was added to 150 ng per chamber of bFGF. This synergistic effect of bFGF and VEGF was significantly reduced by further addition of 100 ng Angiopoietin-2. Inhibition of the response to bFGF and VEGF was confirmed by in vitro EC migration experiments, which, together with our in vivo results, indicates that Ang-2 may target chemotactic responses to bFGF and VEGF in vivo.     

鞘氨醇-1-磷酸对心脏肥大的作用及对心脏微血管内皮细胞的影响

目的探讨鞘氨醇-1-磷酸(S1P)对心脏肥大(CH)的作用与对心脏微血管内皮细胞(CMECs)功能及血管新生的调控,及对磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶/蛋白激酶B/血管内皮生长因子(PI3K/AKT/VEGF)通路的影响。方法收集51例CH患者和65例正常志愿者外周血,及其死亡捐赠的左心室心肌组织,采用免疫组织化学法(IHC)检测两组心肌组织S1P含量,酶联免疫吸附测定法(ELISA)检测外周血S1P、人二氢-S1P(DH-S1P)和血管内皮生长因子(VEGF)的含量。采用免疫荧光法(IF)分别对两组心肌组织进行S1P和分化簇31(CD31)、S1P和Alpha-平滑肌肌动蛋白(α-SMA)共定位染色。采用免疫印迹法(WB)检测心肌组织S1P、S1P受体1-3(S1PR1-3)、α-SMA、CD31及PI3K/AKT通路的变化。分离培养原代CMECs,将第3代CMECs接种于12孔板中,建立肥大CMECs模型,分为两组:去氧肾上腺素(PE)组和PE+S1P(OE)组,每组6孔。OE组转染1μg的PDEST42-S1P-V5质粒24 h,IF对细胞进行染色。结果CH患者心肌组织S1P和血清S1P、DH-S1P和VEGF含量显著低于正常志愿者(t=6.994、7.822、5.982、9.811,P<0.05),且血清VEGF和S1P含量呈显著正相关性(r=0.427,P>0.01)。相比于正常志愿者,CH患者心肌组织CD31+S1P+双阳性共定位细胞占CD31阳性细胞比例显著降低(t=18.214,P<0.05);α-SMA+S1P+双阳性共定位细胞占α-SMA阳性细胞比例也显著降低(t=12.451,P<0.05)。与正常志愿者相比,CH患者心肌组织S1P、S1PR3、CD31和α-SMA蛋白含量明显降低(t=4.254、4.492、15.803、9.941,P<0.05),S1PR2含量明显增高(t=6.828,P<0.05),S1PR1含量无明显变化,差异无统计学意义(P>0.05)。CH患者心脏组织p-PI3K、p-AKT和p-eNOS蛋白表达量明显低于正常志愿者(t=12.340、15.597、8.624,P<0.05)。相比于PE组,OE组中S1P和α-SMA双阳性共定位细胞占α-SMA阳性细胞比例显著增加,细胞培养上清中S1P和VEGF蛋白水平显著增加(t=6.894、5.213,P<0.05)。结论低水平的S1P可能通过抑制CMECs血管新生和间充质转换,及下调PI3K/AKT/eNOS通路在CH的发生发展中发挥重要作用。     

Activation of sphingosine kinase-1 reverses the increase in lung vascular permeability through sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor signaling in endothelial cells

The lipid mediator sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), the product of sphingosine kinase (SPHK)-induced phosphorylation of sphingosine, is known to stabilize interendothelial junctions and prevent microvessel leakiness. Here, we investigated the role of SPHK1 activation in regulating the increase in pulmonary microvessel permeability induced by challenge of mice with lipopolysaccharide or thrombin ligation of protease-activating receptor (PAR)-1. Both lipopolysaccharide and thrombin increased mouse lung microvascular permeability and resulted in a delayed activation of SPHK1 that was coupled to the onset of restoration of permeability. In contrast to wild-type mice, Sphk1(-/-) mice showed markedly enhanced pulmonary edema formation in response to lipopolysaccharide and PAR-1 activation. Using endothelial cells challenged with thrombin concentration (50 nmol/L) that elicited a transient but reversible increase in endothelial permeability, we observed that increased SPHK1 activity and decreased intracellular S1P concentration preceded the onset of barrier recovery. Thus, we tested the hypothesis that released S1P in a paracrine manner activates its receptor S1P1 to restore the endothelial barrier. Knockdown of SPHK1 decreased basal S1P production and Rac1 activity but increased basal endothelial permeability. In SPHK1-depleted cells, PAR-1 activation failed to induce Rac1 activation but augmented RhoA activation and endothelial hyperpermeability response. Knockdown of S1P1 receptor in endothelial cells also enhanced the increase in endothelial permeability following PAR-1 activation. S1P treatment of Sphk1(-/-) lungs or SPHK1-deficient endothelial cells restored endothelial barrier function. Our results suggest the crucial role of activation of the SPHK1-->S1P-->S1P1 signaling pathway in response to inflammatory mediators in endothelial cells in regulating endothelial barrier homeostasis.