Trends in food advertising to children on free-to-air television in Australia

Objective: The issue of marketing unhealthy food to children and its contribution to childhood obesity has become a highly politicised debate in Australia. The aim of this study was to compare recent television food advertising patterns in 2008 to previously published Australian research on television advertising from 2006 and 2007, to examine any changes following policy debates. Methods: Television broadcasting was recorded for two weekdays and two weekend days between 6:00 and 22:00 in February 2008 for all three commercial television channels. Food advertisements were classified as core/healthy, non‐core/unhealthy or miscellaneous. Television audience data were obtained to determine broadcast periods corresponding to children's peak viewing times. Results: The overall rate of food advertising decreased over time: from seven food advertisements/hour/channel in 2006/07 to five in 2008. However, the relative contribution of non‐core food advertising to overall food advertising remained stable. In 2008, the proportion of food advertisements for non‐core foods was significantly higher during children's peak viewing times (p<0.01). Conclusions and implications: Australian children remain exposed to a disproportionate volume of television advertisements for unhealthy foods on commercial television, which are shown during time periods when the highest numbers of children are watching. Regulations to limit unhealthy food advertising during the time periods when a significant number of children are watching are required.     

Persuasive food marketing to children: use of cartoons and competitions in Australian commercial television advertisements

While there is a recognized link between high levels of exposure to advertising of unhealthy foods and overweight and obesity among children, there is little research on the extent to which these exposures include persuasive marketing techniques. This study aimed to measure children's exposure to the use of persuasive marketing within television food advertisements. Advertisements broadcast on all three commercial Australian television channels were recorded for an equivalent 1 week period in May 2006 and 2007 (714 h). Food advertisements were analysed for their use of persuasive marketing, including premium offers, such as competitions, and the use of promotional characters, including celebrities and cartoon characters. Advertised foods were categorized as core, non-core or miscellaneous foods. Commercial data were purchased to determine children's peak viewing times and popular programs. A total of 20 201 advertisements were recorded, 25.5% of which were for food. Significantly more food advertisements broadcast during children's peak viewing times, compared to non-peak times, contained promotional characters (P < 0.05) and premium offers (P < 0.001). During programs most popular with children, there were 3.3 non-core food advertisements per hour containing premium offers, compared to 0.2 per hour during programs most popular with adults. The majority of advertisements containing persuasive marketing during all viewing periods were for non-core foods. Persuasive marketing techniques are frequently used to advertise non-core foods to children, to promote children's brand recognition and preference for advertised products. Future debate relating to television advertising regulations must consider the need to restrict the use of persuasive marketing techniques to children.     

Food advertising on Australian television: the extent of children's exposure

The objective of this study was to investigate the extent and nature of food advertising during Australian children's television (TV) viewing hours and programs, and to determine whether confectionery and fast food restaurant advertisements were more likely to be broadcast during children's programs than during adults' programs on Sydney television stations. One week (390 h) of Australian advertising data broadcast during children's TV viewing hours over 15 television stations were analysed to determine the proportion of food advertisements and, in turn, the proportion of those advertisements promoting foods high in fat and/or sugar. One week (346 h) of confectionery and fast food restaurant advertisements broadcast over three Sydney television stations were analysed to determine whether these types of advertisements were more likely to be advertised during children's programs than adults' programs. Half of all food advertisements promoted foods high in fat and/or sugar. 'Confectionery' and 'fast food restaurants' were the most advertised food categories during children's TV viewing hours. Confectionery advertisements were three times as likely, and fast food restaurant advertisements twice as likely, to be broadcast during children's programs than adults' programs. It can be concluded that foods most advertised during children's viewing hours are not those foods that contribute to a healthy diet for children. Confectionery and fast food restaurant advertising appears to target children. Australian children need protection from the targeted promotion of unhealthy foods on television, but currently little exists.     

The commercial food landscape: outdoor food advertising around primary schools in Australia

Objective: Food marketing is linked to childhood obesity through its influence on children's food preferences, purchase requests and food consumption. We aimed to describe the volume and nature of outdoor food advertisements and factors associated with outdoor food advertising in the area surrounding Australian primary schools. Methods: Forty primary schools in Sydney and Wollongong were selected using random sampling within population density and socio‐economic strata. The area within a 500m radius of each school was scanned and advertisements coded according to pre‐defined criteria, including: food or non‐food product advertisement, distance from the school, size and location. Food advertisements were further categorised as core foods, non‐core foods and miscellaneous drinks (tea and coffee). Results: The number of advertisements identified was 9,151, of which 2,286 (25%) were for food. The number of non‐core food advertisements was 1,834, this accounted for 80% of food advertisements. Soft drinks and alcoholic beverages were the food products most commonly advertised around primary schools (24% and 22% of food advertisements, respectively). Non‐core food products were twice as likely to be advertised close to a primary school (95 non‐core food advertisements per km 2 within 250 m vs. 46 advertisements per km 2 within 250–500 m). Conclusions: The density of non‐core food advertisements within 500 m of primary schools, and the potential for repeated exposure of children to soft drink and alcoholic beverage advertisements in particular, highlights the need for outdoor food marketing policy intervention. Implications: Outdoor advertising is an important food marketing tool that should be considered in future debates on regulation of food marketing to children.     

Television food advertising in Singapore: the nature and extent of children's exposure

Television advertising is an effective medium for reaching young children and influencing their food choice. Studies have shown that messages conveyed by food advertisements are rarely consistent with healthy eating messages. With the increasing purchasing power of children, food companies are focusing on children as lucrative target audiences. Extensive marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods to children potentially contributes to the 'obesogenic' environment. This study aims to determine the degree and nature of food advertisements that Singaporean children are exposed to on television. Ninety-eight hours of children's television programmes broadcast by free-to-air stations were recorded and analysed. Advertisements with the intent of selling and sponsorships for programmes were included. Foods advertised were considered healthy if they met the criteria of the Healthier Choice Symbol in Singapore. Of the 1344 advertisements and sponsorships identified, 33% were for food. Of the food advertisements, 38% were considered healthy, while 57% were not. Candy, confectionery and fast food advertisements accounted for 46% of total food advertisements. Significantly more unhealthy food advertisements were screened on weekends compared with weekdays (p < 0.001). This is the first content analysis of television advertisements in Singapore and the results of this study provide background data on the extent of food advertising that children in Singapore are exposed to. Consistent with other countries, unhealthy food advertisements continue to dominate children's television programmes. This study suggests that Singaporean children are exposed to high levels of advertising for unhealthy foods. The study provides a baseline against which measures aimed at reducing children's exposure to television food advertising can be evaluated.     

Persuasive techniques used in television advertisements to market foods to UK children

The aim of this study was to quantify the nature and extent of use of persuasive marketing techniques in television advertisements (adverts) to promote foods to children. Popular UK commercial television channels broadcasting children's/family viewing were recorded for 2 days (6 am-10 pm) every month in 2008 and recordings were screened for adverts. Eighteen thousand eight hundred and eighty eight adverts were for food and these were coded for peak/non-peak children's viewing time and representation of core (healthy)/non-core (unhealthy)/miscellaneous foods. The analysis assessed use of persuasive appeals, premium offers, promotional characters (brand equity and licensed characters), celebrity endorsers and website promotion in food adverts. Promotional characters, celebrity endorsers and premium offers were used more frequently to promote non-core than core foods, even on dedicated children's channels. Brand equity characters featured on a greater proportion of food adverts than licensed characters. A food brand website was promoted in a third of food adverts (websites are not covered by the statutory regulation on food advertising). This extensive analysis of television adverts demonstrated that the use of persuasive marketing techniques to promote unhealthy foods was extensive in broadcasting popular with children despite regulations. Further studies should incorporate an analysis of the content of websites promoted during food adverts.     

Television Food Advertising to Children: A Global Perspective

Objectives. We compared television food advertising to children in several countries.Methods. We undertook a collaboration among 13 research groups in Australia, Asia, Western Europe, and North and South America. Each group recorded programming for 2 weekdays and 2 weekend days between 6:00 and 22:00, for the 3 channels most watched by children, between October 2007 and March 2008. We classified food advertisements as core (nutrient dense, low in energy), noncore (high in undesirable nutrients or energy, as defined by dietary standards), or miscellaneous. We also categorized thematic content (promotional characters and premiums).Results. Food advertisements composed 11% to 29% of advertisements. Noncore foods were featured in 53% to 87% of food advertisements, and the rate of noncore food advertising was higher during children''s peak viewing times. Most food advertisements containing persuasive marketing were for noncore products.Conclusions. Across all sampled countries, children were exposed to high volumes of television advertising for unhealthy foods, featuring child-oriented persuasive techniques. Because of the proven connections between food advertising, preferences, and consumption, our findings lend support to calls for regulation of food advertising during children''s peak viewing times.Excess weight in children is a significant global public health issue: 10% of school-aged children,¹ and a further 22 million children younger than 5 years,² are estimated to be overweight or obese. Although the absolute prevalence of childhood obesity varies between and within countries,³ obesity levels are rising across the globe.⁴Food marketing to children has been recognized as 1 factor contributing to the obesity-promoting environment, and it is considered an important arena for action in the prevention of obesity.⁵ Systematic reviews have found that marketing generates positive beliefs about advertised foods and influences children''s food preferences, purchase requests, and consumption.^6–8 These findings are a concern because advertised foods are typically the antithesis of dietary recommendations.⁹Evidence from psychological research indicates that children, particularly those younger than 8 years, are not fully aware of the persuasive intent of food marketing and tend to accept advertising as truthful, accurate, and unbiased.^8,10 Older children, although they may understand that advertising is intended to sell a product, may not be able to interpret these messages critically.¹⁰Only a few studies have compared international patterns of television food advertising to children. One of these found that food and beverages were the most highly advertised products and that confectionery, presugared breakfast cereals and fast-food restaurants accounted for over half of all food advertisements.¹¹Analyses of persuasive marketing techniques, such as the use of promotional characters and premiums in television advertising from individual countries, have found them to be concentrated in advertisements for unhealthy food products and during the broadcast periods most popular with children. An Australian study found that the rate of unhealthy food advertisements containing premiums was 18 times as high and the rate of advertisements containing promotional characters was twice as high during the most popular children''s programs as during adults'' popular programs.¹²We determined and compared the frequency and nature of television food advertising to children in a range of countries. We also assessed food advertising during children''s peak viewing periods and the use of persuasive marketing techniques.     

How much food advertising is there on Australian television?

The purpose of this study was to conduct a comprehensive content analysis of television food advertising and provide data on current levels of food advertising in Australia. All three commercial stations available on free-to-air Australian television were concurrently videotaped between 7 a.m. and 9 p.m. on two weekdays and both weekend days in four locations across Australia to provide a total of 645 h for analysis. Each advertisement was categorized as 'non-food ad', 'healthy/core food ad' or 'unhealthy/non-core food ad' according to set criteria. Thirty-one percent of the advertisements analyzed were for food. Eighty-one percent of the food advertisements identified were for unhealthy/non-core foods. When comparing the results of this study with previous research, it was found that the number of unhealthy advertisements screened per hour had not changed over the past few years. On weekdays, the number of advertisements increased throughout the day to peak at more than five advertisements per hour in the 6 p.m. to 9 p.m. time slot. The early morning time slot on Saturday was the most concentrated period for advertising unhealthy/non-core food with more than six advertisements screened per hour. The regional areas screened a significantly lower level of unhealthy/non-core food advertisements (19.5%) compared with the metropolitan areas (29.5%). Fast food and takeaway was the most advertised food category, followed by chocolate and confectionery. A total 194 breaches of the Children's Television Standards were identified according to our interpretation of the standard. It is well recognized that childhood obesity is a worldwide problem. The heavy marketing of energy-dense, nutrient-poor foods influences food choices and contributes to the incidence of overweight and obesity in children. Despite the recognition of this growing problem, little has been done to ensure children are protected against the use of large volumes of unhealthy/non-core food advertising.     

Actual Nutritional Information of Products Advertised to Children and Adults on Saturday

We sought to determine the types of commercials and the actual nutritional content of foods advertised to children during Saturday morning and to adults in evening prime time on 4 television broadcast networks. Food commercials for morning programming were greater in number and repetitions and took up more time overall. Foods advertised in the commercials were coded for actual nutritional content. In general, the morning commercials advertised more unhealthy food products than the evening commercials. Specifically, the morning food commercials advertised unhealthy products in terms of sugar and cholesterol. Viewers of both time periods were subjected to advertisements for unhealthy foods. These types of influences on children's health and development have a potentially negative impact and should be empirically investigated by child health care professionals.     

Actual Nutritional Information of Products Advertised to Children and Adults on Saturday

We sought to determine the types of commercials and the actual nutritional content of foods advertised to children during Saturday morning and to adults in evening prime time on 4 television broadcast networks. Food commercials for morning programming were greater in number and repetitions and took up more time overall. Foods advertised in the commercials were coded for actual nutritional content. In general, the morning commercials advertised more unhealthy food products than the evening commercials. Specifically, the morning food commercials advertised unhealthy products in terms of sugar and cholesterol. Viewers of both time periods were subjected to advertisements for unhealthy foods. These types of influences on children's health and development have a potentially negative impact and should be empirically investigated by child health care professionals.     

Do television food advertisements portray advertised foods in a 'healthy' food context?

Exposure to food promotion influences food preferences and diet. As food advertisements tend to promote 'less healthy' products, food advertising probably plays some role in the 'obesity epidemic'. Amid calls for increased regulation, food manufacturers are beginning to engage in a variety of health-promoting marketing initiatives. Positioning products in the context of a 'healthy', balanced diet in television advertisements is one such initiative. We explored whether the wider food context in which foods are advertised on television are 'healthier' than the advertised foods themselves. All foods shown in food advertisements broadcast during 1 week on one commercial UK channel were identified and classified as 'primary' (i.e. the focus of advertisements) or 'incidental'. The nutritional content of all foods was determined and that of primary and incidental foods were compared. Almost two-thirds of food advertisements did not include any incidental foods. When a wider food context was present, this tended to be 'healthier' than the primary foods that were the focus of food advertisements - particularly in terms of the food groups represented. It is not yet clear what effect this may have on consumers' perceptions and behaviour, and whether or not this practice should be encouraged or discouraged from a public health perspective.     

Exposure of French Children and Adolescents to Advertising for Foods High in Fat,Sugar or Salt

Food marketing of products high in fat, sugar and salt (HFSS), including television advertising, is one of the environmental factors considered as a contributor to the obesity epidemic. The main objective of this study was to quantify the exposure of French children and adolescents to television advertisements for HFSS products. TV food advertisements broadcast in 2018 were categorized according to the Nutri-Score of the advertised products. These advertisements, identified according to the days and times of broadcast, were cross-referenced with audience data for 4- to 12-year-olds and 13- to 17-year-olds. More than 50% of food advertisements seen on television by children and adolescents concerned HFSS products, identified as classified as Nutri-Score D and E. In addition, half of advertisements for D and E Nutri-Score products were seen by children and adolescents in the evening during peak viewing hours, when more than 20% of both age groups watched television. On the other hand, during the same viewing hours, the percentage of children and adolescents who watched youth programs, the only programs subject to an advertising ban, was very low (<2%). These results show that the relevance of regulating advertising at times when the television audience of children and adolescents is the highest and not targeted at youth programs, in order to reduce their exposure to advertising for products of low nutritional quality.     

Children’s measured exposure to food and beverage advertising on television in Toronto (Canada), May 2011–May 2019

ObjectiveExposure to unhealthy food advertising is a known determinant of children’s poor dietary behaviours. The purpose of this study was to quantify and characterize Canadian children’s exposure to food advertising on broadcast television and examine trends over time.MethodsObjectively measured advertising exposure data for 19 food categories airing on 30 stations broadcast in Toronto were licenced for May 2011 and May 2019. Using ad ratings data, the average number of food advertisements viewed by children aged 2–11 years, overall, by food category and by type of television station (child-appealing, adolescent-appealing and generalist stations), was estimated per time period.ResultsIn May 2019, children viewed an average of 136 food advertisements on television, 20% fewer than in May 2011. More than half of advertisements viewed in May 2019 promoted unhealthy food categories such as fast food (43% of exposure), candy (6%), chocolate (6%) and regular soft drinks (5%) and only 17% of their total exposure occurred on child-appealing stations. Between May 2011 and May 2019, children’s exposure increased the most, in absolute terms, for savory snack foods (+7.2 ad exposures/child), fast food (+5.4) and regular soft drinks (+5.3) with most of these increases occurring on generalist stations.ConclusionCanadian children are still exposed to advertisements promoting unhealthy food categories on television despite voluntary restrictions adopted by some food companies. Statutory restrictions should be adopted and designed such that children are effectively protected from unhealthy food advertising on both stations intended for general audiences and those appealing to younger audiences.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.17269/s41997-021-00528-1.     

Density of outdoor food and beverage advertising around schools in Ulaanbaatar (Mongolia) and Manila (The Philippines) and implications for policy

Children’s exposure to unhealthy food marketing is recognised by leading international health organisations as a probable causal factor for obesity. Outdoor advertising near schools embeds commercial food messages into children’s everyday lives and acts as a cue for food purchases. This project aimed to describe food advertising in the area around schools in two demographically and culturally disparate cities in the Asia Pacific Region. Data on outdoor food advertising were collected from the area within 500?m of 30 primary schools in each of two cities: Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia and Manila, The Philippines. For each food advertisement, information was collected on: distance from the school (within 250 or 500?m); size, setting, type and position of the advertisement; and the food/drink product type promoted (core/healthy, non-core/unhealthy and miscellaneous). Density of advertisements was calculated per 100?m². The density of food advertising was twice as high in the area closest to schools compared to the area further from schools (.9 vs. .5 in Ulaanbaatar and 6.5 vs. 3.3 advertisements per 100?m² in Manila). Almost all food advertisements were for non-core/unhealthy foods/drinks (92% in Ulaanbaatar and 85% in Manila), and soft drinks were most frequently promoted. Children in Ulaanbaatar and Manila are exposed to large numbers of advertisements for unhealthy foods/drinks on their way to and from school, and these are particularly clustered within the immediate vicinity of schools. Clear directions for policy development are outlined to reduce children’s exposure to this marketing, including restricting the placement and content of outdoor advertising.     

Analysis of advertising in the multimedia environment of children and adolescents in Peru

I examined advertising of healthy and unhealthy food and beverage products across television, Facebook, outdoors, and bodegas. I used content analysis to describe the types of advertised food products, the persuasive techniques of the advertisements of these products, and the portrayals of eating behaviors on food advertising. Findings revealed that food promotion was more prominent in point-of-purchase advertising and less on television. The three most common advertised products were sweets, sugary drinks, and fast-food restaurants, and the persuasive techniques most commonly associated with food and beverage advertisements were appeals to the flavor/taste/smell/texture, nutritional quality, competitive/unique, and newness of the product; only one emotional appeal stood out in one medium: family bonding was frequent on television. This study is one of the few that have collectively surveyed food advertising that children and adolescents are likely to find in their multimedia environment.     

Food Marketing to Children on U.S. Spanish-Language Television

Latino children in particular are at risk of childhood obesity. Because exposure to televised food marketing is a contributor to childhood obesity, it is important to examine the nutritional quality of foods advertised on Spanish-language children's programming. The authors analyzed a sample of 158 Spanish-language children's television programs for its advertising content and compared them with an equivalent sample of English-language advertising. The authors evaluated nutritional quality of each advertised product using a food rating system from the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. In addition, the authors assessed compliance with industry self-regulatory pledges. The authors found that amount of food advertising on Spanish-language channels (M = 2.2 ads/hour) was lower than on English-language programs, but the nutritional quality of food products on Spanish-language channels was substantially poorer than on English channels. Industry self-regulation was less effective on Spanish-language channels. The study provides clear evidence of significant disparities. Food advertising targeted at Spanish-speaking children is more likely to promote nutritionally poor food products than advertising on English-language channels. Industry self-regulation is less effective on Spanish-language television channels. Given the disproportionately high rate of childhood obesity among Latinos, the study's findings hold important implications for public health policy.     

Discretionary food advertising on television in 2017: a descriptive study

Objective: To describe advertising of discretionary foods on television at times when children watch television. Methods: We randomly sampled 84 days (one of each weekday for every month of the year) for 2017, viewed all food advertisements and categorised them according to type (healthy, discretionary or other). The frequency of advertisements per hour was calculated for times when most children watch television (peak viewing time PVT1) and when C‐rated programs can be broadcast (PVT2). Results: The rate of advertising of discretionary foods during PVT1 was 1.5/hour (95%CI 1.4–1.5), and during PVT2 was 1.7/hour (1.6–1.8). Conclusions: Children continue to be exposed to food advertising. Implications for public health: Voluntary food and grocery industry codes have not prevented children from being exposed to discretionary food advertising on television. From June 2019, all food and beverage advertising is subject to either food industry or advertising industry codes. The data presented here will form the baseline for future evaluation of whether the new arrangements reduce children's exposure to food advertising.     

Nine out of 10 food advertisements shown during Saturday morning children's television programming are for foods high in fat, sodium, or added sugars, or low in nutrients

A 2005 review by the Institute of Medicine of the National Academies concluded that food marketing influences children's food preferences, consumption, and health. Given the powerful influence of marketing on children's diets, this cross-sectional study examined the types of foods, the nutritional quality of those foods, and the marketing techniques and messages used in food advertising during Saturday morning children's television programming. During 27.5 hours of programming in May 2005, 49% of advertisements shown were for food (281 food advertisements out of 572 total advertisements). The most commonly advertised food categories were ready-to-eat breakfast cereal and cereal bars (27% of all food advertisements), restaurants (19% of food advertisements), and snack foods (18% of food advertisements). Ninety-one percent of food advertisements were for foods or beverages high in fat, sodium, or added sugars or were low in nutrients. Cartoon characters were used in 74% of food advertisements, and toy or other giveaways were used in 26% of food advertisements. About half of food advertisements contained health/nutrition or physical activity messages and 86% of food advertisements contained emotional appeals. This study provides food and nutrition professionals with information about the amount and types of food children are encouraged to eat during Saturday morning television programming. The findings can help food and nutrition professionals counsel children about healthful eating and/or develop programs or policies to balance those advertisements with healthful eating messages.     

Food marketing to children on Greek television

This study examines food marketing to children on Greek television. Food advertisements broadcast in public and commercial channels during children’s programmes and programmes watched by family members are examined. The research took into consideration four different time periods of the second semester of 2011. 7 days in summer, 7 days in autumn, 4 weekends in autumn and five evenings in winter were examined. The total time of all advertisements counted was 25:28:06 h where the total time of food advertisements was 4:58:01 h. Food advertisements in summer counted to 12.47 % of the total number of advertisements. In autumn food advertisements counted to 30 % of all advertisements shown. On 4 weekends in autumn, food advertisements were equal to 29.47 % of total advertisements. In winter advertisements related to food were equal to 36 % of advertisements. In total out of 3,238 advertisements 913 were related to food. Most food advertisements were shown on commercial channels. Unhealthy food was advertised at all times as well as healthy lifestyle. Children are aggressively attacked by food marketing at all time periods. Advertisements that target children should be carefully examined even those that promote healthy lifestyle. Strict regulation is required to protect children from aggressive marketing.     

Unhealthy sport sponsorship at the 2017 AFL Grand Final: a case study of its frequency,duration and nature

Objective: To assess the frequency, duration and nature of unhealthy marketing during the highest‐rating sporting event in Australia in 2017. Methods: A content analysis of the 2017 Australian Football League (AFL) Grand Final television broadcast identified episodes of unhealthy food and sugary drink, alcohol and gambling marketing (and pro‐health marketing as a comparison). Results: There were 559 unhealthy marketing episodes (47 minutes 17 seconds). Most (81%) were for unhealthy food and sugary drink products, while alcohol (9%) and gambling (10%) were less frequent. The total duration of unhealthy marketing was delivered primarily via fixed advertising (55%), dynamic advertising (32%) and branded objects (11%). For unhealthy food and sugary drinks, at least one episode was visible 25% of the time. For each of alcohol and gambling, at least one episode was visible 4% of the time. Unhealthy food and sugary drink marketing peaked in Quarter 2. Pro‐health marketing was limited, with 26 episodes (2 minutes 59 seconds). Conclusions: The 2017 AFL Grand Final broadcast featured a high frequency and extensive duration of unhealthy marketing, especially for unhealthy food and sugary drink brands. Implications for public health: Findings strengthen evidence supporting calls to increase regulation of sport sponsorship by unhealthy brands.