鲍曼不动杆菌临床分离株表型、基因型和耐药基因的对比研究

目的 对比研究鲍曼不动杆菌临床分离株基因型和编码耐药基因的差异,并分析其与临床多重耐药性的关系.方法 随机收集中南大学湘雅二医院2008年9月至2009年9月分离的77株鲍曼不动杆菌,采用WHO推荐的K-B法对鲍曼不动杆菌进行临床常见15种抗生素药物敏感试验,并对药敏谱进行分析.用随机扩增多态性DNA法(RAPD)技术进行基因分型.并利用PCR对β-内酰胺酶基因TEM-1、IMP、OXA-23、OXA-24、AmpC和氨基糖苷类修饰酶基因aac(3)-Ⅰ、aac(6')-Ⅰ、ant(3")-Ⅰ和16S rRNA甲基化基因armA、rmtA、rmtB进行扩增及序列分析.对比分析鲍曼不动杆菌耐药基因的携带情况,以及与基因型和耐药性的关系.结果 77株鲍曼不动杆菌中敏感菌株有31株,对5种或5种以上抗生素耐药的多重耐药菌株46株,内含全耐药菌株10株.RAPD技术将其分为17型,为A-G型,多重耐药株中E型为优势克隆株(17株),在重症监护病房(ICU)中流行最广,占47.1%(8/17).敏感株中各型散在分布.PCR扩增结果显示,多重耐药株和敏感株携带TEM-1、IMP、OXA-23、OXA-24、AmpC、aac(3)-Ⅰ、aac(6')-Ⅰ、ant(3")-Ⅰ和armA耐药基因的比率分别为95.7%、39.1%、84.8%、54.3%、87.0%、89.1%、84.8%、45.7%、63.0%和58.1%、9.7%、32.3%、48.4%、48.4%、29.0%、45.2%、12.9%、9.7%,未发现rmtA和rmtB基因阳性菌株.经x2检验,除OXA-24外,其余各耐药基因携带率比较差异有统计学意义(P＜0.05).药敏分析提示携带以上耐药基因的鲍曼不动杆菌菌株的耐药率明显高于未携带该基因的菌株,其中对阿米卡星和庆大霉素耐药的菌株,其氨基糖苷类酶基因均阳性(34.8%),含所测的所有β-内酰胺酶基因的菌株均为全耐药株.结论 与临床分离的敏感鲍曼不动杆菌相比,多重耐药株耐药谱广,耐药率高,其携带β-内酰胺酶基因和氨基糖苷类酶基因种类多,分离率高,且同一克隆的多重耐药株可在病室内和病室间传播.     

鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯类抗生素的耐药分析及基因型研究

目的分析20株鲍曼不动杆菌对耐碳青霉烯类抗生素的耐药性及对碳青霉烯酶基因的研究。方法用API鉴定条进行细菌鉴定及K-B法进行药敏试验,用碳青霉烯酶4种基因的特异性引物进行聚合酶链反应（PCR）扩增和基因型的测序分析,并通过网上Genbank进行比对以确定编码酶基因的类型。结果 20株鲍曼不动杆菌对左旋氧氟沙星、丁胺卡那霉素、多粘菌素B的耐药率分别为50%、25%、4%。其它抗生素的耐药率均在90%以上。携带D类碳青霉烯酶OXA-23基因有17株（85%）,携带OXA-51基因有15株（75%）,OXA-24、OXA-58基因引物PCR扩增为阴性,随机各抽取3株OXA-23基因阳性株进行测序后通过在网上Genbank比对发现与OXA-23标准株99%同源,OXA-51基因阳性株与OXA-51标准株98%同源。结论本院耐碳青霉烯类抗生素的鲍曼不动杆菌对多粘菌素B的耐药率最低,其次是丁胺卡那霉素,以携带OXA-23型碳青霉烯酶基因为主,应引起临床高度重视,防止在院内广泛传播。     

泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌整合子Ⅰ和ISCR1结构及基因分型研究

目的研究从临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌的整合子Ⅰ和ISCR1的分布及结构情况,并对其进行基因分型。方法分离自临床的57株鲍曼不动杆菌,PCR检测整合酶Ⅰ、整合子Ⅰ、ISCR1以及ISCR1可变区,PCR产物进行限制性片段长度多态性（RFLP）分型并进行测序分析可变区携带的耐药基因盒,ERIC-PCR进行基因分型。结果 49株整合酶I阳性,其中47株整合子I扩增阳性,RFLP分为2型,测序结果为aacA4-catB8-aadA1和drf17-aadA5。3株ISCR1以及ISCR1可变区扩增均阳性,可变区经RFLP分为1型,测序结果为orf513-qnrA1-ampR-qacEdeltal,ISCR1阳性菌整合子I均阳性,经ERIC-PCR检测将57株鲍曼不动杆菌分为27个基因型。结论Ⅰ类整合子广泛存在于鲍曼不动杆菌中,ISCRI携带率较低,氨基糖苷类、甲氧苄啶类和β-内酰胺类耐药基因盒较常见,ERIC-PCR可用于临床鲍曼不动杆菌的分子流行病学研究。     

5年间鲍曼不动杆菌产碳青霉烯酶特性与耐药相关性研究

目的 研究2002-2006年每年3-5月临床分离鲍曼不动杆菌中碳青霉烯酶的分布与变迁情况及其与碳青霉烯类抗生素耐药的相关性.方法 琼脂稀释法检测亚胺培南(IPM)和美罗培南(MEN)对174株鲍曼不动杆菌的最低抑菌浓度(MIC);2-巯基丙酸(2-MPA)和乙二胺四乙酸(EDTA)协同试验进行金属β-内酰胺酶表型检测;PCR扩增金属β-内酰胺酶(MBL)VIM、IMP和苯唑西林酶OXA-23、OXA-24、OXA-51、OXA-58相关基因.结果 2002-2006年每年3-5月临床分离的鲍曼不动杆菌对IPM的耐药率分别为0(0/20)、26%(1/38)、0(0/36)、34.9%(15/43)和59.5%(22/37),对MEN的耐药率分别为0(0/20)、5.3%(2/38)、0(0/36)、20.9%(9/43)和51.4%(19/37);15.5%(27/174)的菌株OXA-23阳性,72.4%(126/174)的菌株OXA-5I阳性,其中15.5%(27/174)菌株同时产OXA-51和OXA-23酶,OXA-23的阳性率从2002年的0上升到2006年的48.6%,OXA-51的阳性率从2002年的35.0%上升到2006年的89.2%;所有菌株均未检出OXA-24、OXA-58、IMP及VIM基因.结论 5年间鲍曼不动杆菌中OXA-23、OXA-5I的检出率及其对碳青霉烯类抗生素的耐药性均呈上升趋势;产OXA-23型B-内酰胺酶是本组鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯类抗生素产生耐药的重要原因,OXA61可能与鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯类抗生素的低水平耐药有关.     

转座子tnpU基因在多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌中的分布情况

目的研究转座子tnpU基因和β-内酰胺酶在多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌中的分布情况。方法用纸片扩散初筛试验、扩散确证试验进行超广谱β-内酰胺酶（ESBLs）表型检查,头孢西丁三维试验进行AmpC β-内酰胺酶的表型检查,纸片协同试验筛选产金属β-内酰胺酶（MBL）菌株;用多重聚合酶链反应（PCR）技术扩增转座子tnpU基因,并进行DNA测序;用MIC药敏法分析多重耐药革兰阴性杆菌的药物敏感性。结果转座子tnpU的总检出率为25．5％。在各菌种的检出率分别为大肠埃希菌占6.3％（3株）、肺炎克雷伯菌占8．3％（1株）、鲍曼不动杆菌占33-3％（20株）、铜绿假单胞菌占43．2％（16株）;β-内酰胺酶表型检测中,ESBLs的检出率最高,转座子tnpU基因阳性的菌株大多数B．内酰胺酶表型为阳性;转座子tnpU基因阳性菌株对抗生素的耐药率显著高于转座子阴性菌株（P〈0．05）。结论转座子tnpU基因在非发酵菌中的分布较广泛,可能在多重耐药机制中起重要作用。     

医院泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯抗生素的耐药机制

目的 探讨医院泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌对碳青霉烯抗生素的耐药机制.方法 应用PCR方法对2010年12月至2012年3月期间本院从临床痰标本中分离的36株泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌进行碳青霉烯酶IMP、OXA23基因和整合子基因检测;提取细菌膜蛋白行SDS-PAGE电泳分析其组成.结果 36株泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌碳青霉烯酶OXA23基因扩增均为阳性;14株碳青霉烯酶IMP基因扩增阳性,22株阴性.12株整合子PCR产物约1200 bp,10株约3000 bp,14株整合子PCR产物约3500 bp.与碳青霉烯抗生素敏感鲍曼不动杆菌膜蛋白比较,22株泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌存在相对分子质量为25 000、36 000的膜蛋白缺失.结论 医院泛耐药鲍曼不动杆菌耐碳青霉烯抗生素机制与产IMP、OXA23碳青霉烯酶及膜蛋白缺失有关.     

质粒介导KPC-2型碳青霉烯酶肺炎克雷伯菌儿童分离株耐药基因研究

目的 研究碳青霉烯类耐药肺炎克雷伯菌临床儿童分离株的耐药特点及分子流行病学特征.方法 收集温州医学院附属第二医院2010年7月-2011年6月从儿童标本中分离的耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌12株,所有菌株为非重复菌株,菌种鉴定采用全自动微生物分析仪.改良的Hodge试验筛选产碳青霉烯酶阳性菌株,采用PCR法检测KPC、IMP、bla(s)、VIM、SPM和整合酶基因,测序确定基因型.对菌株进行质粒结合试验、质粒消除试验检测质粒的转移性.脉冲场凝胶电泳(PFGE)分析耐药菌株的同源性.结果 12株耐碳青霉烯类肺炎克雷伯菌对庆大霉素、妥布霉素、阿米卡星、环丙沙星、左氧氟沙星、复方磺胺甲噁唑的敏感率分别为8.3％、41.7％、58.3％、8.3％、8.3％、33.3％;12株菌均携带有KPC-2基因,且同时携带有TEM-1和SHV型β-内酰胺酶基因,其中SHV-11-like和SHV-1 2-like各6株;11株携带CTX-M型基因,其中4株为CTX-M-14-like基因,6株CTX-M-15-like基因;2株携带有OXA-10型基因,1株携带有PER-1基因.未检出NDM-1、GIM、SPM、SIM、VIM型碳青霉烯酶基因.12株均为Ⅰ类整合酶基因(int1)阳性.2株通过接合试验把质粒传递给受体菌EC600.所有接合子blaTEM-1基因阳性、超广谱β-内酰胺酶(ESBL)基因阳性及对亚胺培南、庆大霉素、阿米卡星、妥布霉素和头孢噻肟耐药,接合子ESBL基因型与供菌一致.2株菌经质粒消除后对亚胺培南的MIC值均有较大程度降低,消除后KPC-2基因扩增为阴性.12株KPC-2基因阳性菌株经PFGE分成5个基因型,主要为B型和C型.结论 KPC-2型碳青霉烯酶基因已经在儿童肺炎克雷伯菌中播散,常伴随携带多种类型的ESBL基因和Ⅰ类整合酶基因,部分耐药基因可通过质粒播散.     

多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的耐药性与AmpC耐药基因的研究

目的了解我院临床分离的60株多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌（multi-drug resistant Acinetobater baumannii,MDRAB）的耐药性和AmpC耐药基因的存在状况。方法采用VITEK-2全自动细菌鉴定仪检测鲍曼不动杆菌对18种抗生素的药敏结果,对该细菌进行总DNA的提取,用聚合酶链反应（PCR）检测耐药基因,结合药物敏感试验分析菌株的耐药特征。结果检出结构基因ampC型49株,占81.7%;blaADC基因型50株,占83%;ACT基因型2株;41株菌同时携带blaADC和ampC结构基因,占68%;2株同时携带blaADC、ACT和ampC结构基因;未检测到其它AmpC耐药基因（MOX、CIT、FOX、DHA）。携带AmpC耐药基因的菌株耐药率高,特别是对头孢曲松、氨苄西林、头孢替坦、头孢唑啉、呋喃妥因的耐药率已接近或达到100%,而对于丁胺卡那霉素和头孢哌酮/舒巴坦的耐药率最低,分别为5%和20%。结论多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的blaADC耐药基因和ampC结构基因同时携带率高,并且是鲍曼不动杆菌多重耐药的主要原因。     

多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌的耐药分子机制及质粒谱分析

目的了解我院临床分离的66株多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌（MDRAB）的耐药性和整合子（qacE△1-sull）、转座子（tnpU）存在状况,并对菌株质粒谱进行分析。方法采用VITEK-2全自动细菌鉴定仪检测鲍曼不动杆菌对18种抗生素的药敏结果,并对该细菌进行总DNA的提取。用聚合酶链反应（PCR）检测qacE△1-sull及tnpU,提取质粒进行同源性分析。结果 66株鲍曼不动杆菌中整合子qacE△1-sull基因阳性率为31.8%,转座子tnpU基因阳性率为30.3%。携带遗传标记的菌株耐药率高,特别是对头孢曲松、氨苄西林、头孢替坦、头孢唑啉、呋喃妥因的耐药率已接近或达到100%,而对丁胺卡那霉素和头孢哌酮/舒巴坦的耐药率最低,分别为5%和20%;有19株对亚胺培南耐药,其中整合子阳性率63.2%,转座子阳性率36.8%。检出质粒的46株（70%）临床分离菌出现1～3条大质粒带,大小在1～20kb间,其中出现1条带的有33株、2条带8株、3条带5株,有12株菌提取到大小相同的质粒。结论多重耐药鲍曼不动杆菌耐亚胺培南的耐药现象严重;整合子、转座子遗传标记的携带率高,可能是鲍曼不动杆菌多重耐药的主要原因。     

鲍曼不动杆菌armA基因的分布与耐药性的研究

目的 调查我院鲍曼不动杆菌中16S rRNA甲基化基因armA的分布以及与鲍曼不动杆菌耐药谱的关系,并初步探讨其在分子流行病学分析中的作用.方法 收集72株鲍曼不动杆菌,采用K-B法对鲍曼不动杆菌进行药物敏感试验,后采用PCR筛选鲍曼不动杆菌的16S rRNA甲基化基因armA,并利用随机扩增多态性DNA法(RAPD)技术进行基因分型.统计各鲍曼不动杆菌菌株对多种氨基糖苷类药物的药敏结果,并分析基因型与耐药性的关系.结果 根据PCR产物片段大小,72株鲍曼不动杆菌共有armA基因阳性菌株20株(27.8%).含有armA基因型鲍曼不动杆菌菌株对庆大霉素、妥布霉素和阿米卡星的耐药率均为90%;随机扩增多态性DNA法显示20株armA基因阳性的鲍曼不动杆菌主要分为7型,A型为优势克隆株.结论 产16S rRNA甲基化基因armA的鲍曼不动杆菌菌株可对多种氨基糖苷类抗生素高水平耐药.同一克隆菌株在病房内和病房间的传播为我院armA基因传播的主要方式.     

沙门菌中第一类整合子的鉴定及特性分析

目的　基于整合子在细菌耐药机制中的重要作用 ,对来自正常人体内耐药沙门菌的整合子分布及其结构特征进行分析。方法　应用PCR方法 ,设计第一类整合酶基因intI1和耐药基因盒的特异性引物 ,用PCR方法检测整合子阳性菌株并对其整合的耐药基因进行测序和序列分析。结果　发现 1株S .hadar和 3株S .tshiongwe为第一类整合酶阳性菌株。耐药基因盒进行扩增的结果 ,从 2株中分别得到 10 0 9bp的扩增产物。 1株得到 16 6 4bp的扩增产物。 1株菌得到 10 0 9bp和 16 6 4bp的扩增产物。序列分析结果表明 ,10 0 9bp的扩增产物为携带aadA2 ,对氨基糖苷类抗生素药物壮观霉素、链霉素产生耐药的基因盒 ;16 6 4bp为携带aadA5和dfr17,对氨基糖苷类抗生素药物壮观霉素、链霉素和磺胺类药物甲氧氨苄嘧啶产生耐药的基因盒。结论　首次揭示了健康人携带由整合子介导的耐药菌这一现象 ,提示我们要从基因水平上监测细菌的耐药情况     

Genetic diversity of carbapenem-hydrolysing β-lactamases in Acinetobacter baumannii from Romanian hospitals

Thirteen carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii isolates, collected in Romania during 2009-2010, were investigated to identify the mechanism(s) responsible for carbapenem resistance. Genotyping was performed by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, multiplex PCR sequence typing and multilocus sequence typing. Eleven non-clonally related isolates harboured the bla(OXA-23) gene on their chromosome within a Tn2008 transposon structure. The two remaining isolates harboured a bla(OXA-58) gene that was either plasmid or chromosome borne. Two isolates co-expressed OXA-23 together with the extended-spectrum β-lactamase PER-1. This study constitutes the first report of OXA-58 and OXA-23-producing A. baumannii isolates in Romania.     

Diversity of β-lactamases in Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates producing metallo-β-lactamase in two Tunisian hospitals

This study was conducted to identify the β-lactamase content of 30 metallo-β-lactamase-producing Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated in 2007 from two Tunisian hospitals and to investigate their genetic relatedness. All these isolates produced VIM-2. bla(PER-1), bla(PSE-1), bla(OXA-2), and bla(OXA-10) were identified in 17, 5, 21, and 1 isolates, respectively. These enzymes were often associated in the same isolate: 26 isolates had at least two β-lactamases. The predominant serotype was O12. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis revealed genetic diversity among the metallo-β-lactamase-producing P. aeruginosa isolates. This is the first report on the existence of bla(PER-1), bla(PSE-1), bla(OXA-2), and bla(OXA-10) in Tunisia.     

Outbreak of Acinetobacter baumannii producing the carbapenem-hydrolyzing oxacillinase OXA-58 in Rome, Italy

In this study 45 epidemic and sporadic isolates of Acinetobacter baumannii were investigated by antimicrobial resistance, integron identifications and genotyping. Isolates were genotyped by random amplified polymorphism (RAPD) DNA and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Four different RAPD patterns were observed among the isolates of our collection, further discerned in six PFGE types. Two prevalent genotypes were identified, one corresponding to a carbapenem resistant epidemic clone, causing an outbreak at the intensive care unit of a hospital of Rome. Two class 1 integrons, carrying different gene cassette arrays, were identified among the two prevalent genotypes. Nucleotide analysis of the integron-variable regions revealed the presence of the aacA4, orfO, bla(OXA-20), and aacC1, orfX, orfX', aadA1 gene cassette arrays, respectively. All the carbapenem resistant strains analyzed in this study carried the bla (OXA-58) gene located on plasmids.     

PER-1- and OXA-10-like β-lactamases in ceftazidime-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from intensive care unit patients in Istanbul, Turkey

The presence of PER-1- and OXA-10-like beta-lactamases was investigated by PCR in 49 ceftazidime-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from patients hospitalised in the 24-bed general intensive care unit of the Istanbul Faculty of Medicine during a 12-month period between February 1999 and February 2000. The clonal relatedness of the isolates was investigated by random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, and the sequences of the PER-1 and OXA genes from all isolates were determined. The rates of resistance of the isolates to imipenem, aztreonam and cefepime were 98%, 92% and 96%, respectively, and to piperacillin and piperacillin-tazobactam were 41% and 37%, respectively. Using the double-disk synergy test, 37% (18/49) of the isolates were identified as extended-spectrum beta-lactamase producers. The PER-1 gene was identified in 86% (42/49) and the OXA-10 gene in 55% (27/49) of the ceftazidime-resistant isolates. Of isolates carrying the PER-1 gene, 48% (20/42) also carried the OXA-10 gene. The respective nucleotide sequences were identical for each isolate. Sixteen RAPD patterns were detected among the PER-1-positive isolates, but 60% (25/42) of the PER-1-positive isolates belonged to two distinct patterns, while the remainder exhibited a wide clonal diversity. The results indicated that the prevalence of PER-1- and OXA-10-like beta-lactamases remains high among ceftazidime-resistant P. aeruginosa isolates in Turkey.     

Prevalence of OXA-type β-lactamases among Acinetobacter baumannii isolates from Northwest of Iran

Carbapenems have been considered as last line antibiotics for treatment of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Acinetobacter baumannii but carbapenem resistant A. baumannii has been increased during the last decade in many parts of the world. OXA-type β-lactamase enzymes are the most common cause of carbapenem resistance in A. baumannii and presence of ISAba1 in upstream of these genes may increase the expression of these OXA genes. The aim of this study was to determine, for the first time, the antibiotic resistance pattern and prevalence of OXA type β-lactamases among nosocomial A. baumannii isolates from northwest of Iran. A total of 100 A. baumannii isolates were recovered from hospitalized patients in a university hospital in northwest of Iran. Sixty-two percent of isolates were resistant to imipenem. All isolates carried bla(OXA-51)-like gene. Among imipenem resistant isolates, 88.7% carried bla(OXA-23)-like, 1.6% carried bla(OXA-40)-like, and 3.2% had bla(OXA-58)-like resistance genes. Ninety percent of isolates contained ISAba1 element and in 74.2% of imipenem resistant isolates, ISAba1 was located in upstream of bla(OXA-23)-like. The results of this study demonstrated high prevalence of OXA-type carbapenemase among MDR A. bumanii in the Northwest of Iran.     

Phenotypic screening of carbapenemases and associated β-lactamases in carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae

Dissemination of carbapenem resistance among Enterobacteriaceae poses a considerable threat to public health. Carbapenemase gene detection by molecular methods is the gold standard but is available in only a few laboratories. The aim of this study was to test phenotypic methods for the detection of metallo-β-lactamase (MBL)- or Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC)-producing Enterobacteriaceae and associated mechanisms of β-lactam resistance against a panel of 30 genotypically characterized carbapenem-resistant Enterobacteriaceae : 9 MBL, 7 KPC, 6 OXA-48, and 8 extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL) or AmpC β-lactamases associated with decreased permeability. We used carbapenemase inhibitor-impregnated agar to test for carbapenem-resistant strains. Differences in the inhibition zone sizes of the meropenem, imipenem, ertapenem, and doripenem disks were measured between control and inhibitor (EDTA or phenylboronic acid [PBA] with or without cloxacillin)-impregnated Mueller-Hinton agar with a cutoff of 10 mm. All 9 MBL- and 7 KPC-producing Enterobacteriaceae were identified from the differences in zone size in the presence and absence of specific inhibitors, regardless of the carbapenem MICs and including isolates with low-level resistance to carbapenems. We also detected their associated β-lactam resistance mechanisms (11 ESBL-type and 5 class A β-lactamase 2b). No differences in zone size were observed for OXA-48-producing strains or other carbapenem resistance mechanisms such as ESBL and decreased permeability. We propose a new strategy to detect carbapenemases (MBL- and KPC-type) and associated mechanisms of β-lactam resistance (ESBL or class A β-lactamase 2b) by the use of inhibitor-impregnated agar. A rapid phenotypic detection of resistance mechanisms is important for epidemiological purposes and for limiting the spread of resistant strains by implementing specific infection control measures.     

Genetic analysis of a multiresistant strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa producing PER-1 β-lactamase

A multiresistant strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, PA2345, belonging to serotype O:1, was isolated at the Teaching Hospital of Besançon, France. Resistance to β-lactams, including third-generation cephalosporins, depended upon a chromosomally-located composite transposon carrying the bla_PER-1 gene encoding extended-spectrum β-lactamase PER-1. PA2345 was unrelated genotypically to two previous PER-1-producing isolates of P. aeruginosa. Sequence analysis of the transposon in PA2345 revealed the presence of two insertion sequences (ISPa23 and ISPa24) with very different predicted transposases (TnpA1, TnpA2), which were both bordered by closely related 16-bp inverted repeats. High resistance of PA2345 to aminoglycosides was caused, in part, by a chromosomal class-I integron containing gene cassettes aadB, encoding an ANT(2″) enzyme, and aadA11, encoding a new ANT(3″) enzyme with 281 amino-acids that conferred elevated resistance to streptomycin and spectinomycin. Stable overproduction of efflux system MexXY contributed to resistance to amikacin, while mutations in the quinolone resistance-determining regions of gyrA and parC accounted for the high resistance of PA2345 to fluoroquinolones. The study indicates that multidrug resistance in P. aeruginosa might arise from sequential acquisition of a variety of mechanisms provided by both horizontal gene transfers and mutations in chromosomal genes.