Diabetic Retinopathy,Present and Future: Conclusion of Diabetic Retinopathy Symposium

The preceding reports of the Diabetic Retinopathy Symposium are reviewed. Diabetic retinopathy progresses with the duration of disease and often results in proliferative retinopathy in the juvenile onset patient and macular edema in the older onset patient. Periodic ophthalmoscopic examinations are essential in detecting the progression of retinopathy and development of disease characteristics which indicate a need for treatment. Laboratory and clinical experience stress the importance of rigid glucose control in preventing diabetic retinopathy. Ischemia of the midperipheral retina stimulates the development of high risk factors for which panretinal photocoagulation is indicated despite side effects such as decreased dark adaptation. Pars plana vitrectomy results in substantial visual improvement in eyes with nonclearing vitreous hemorrhage and/or traction retinal detachments involving the macula. Future advances in our knowledge of diabetic retinopathy should come from the National Eye Institute's Collaborative Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy Study and Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study, and the analysis of vasoformative factors.     

Vitrectomy in the management of diabetic eye disease.

Vitrectomy techniques including endolaser photocoagulation allow visual rehabilitation in many eyes that are otherwise untreatable. Discerning the indications and timing for diabetic vitrectomy is increasingly important as the treatment of complications of diabetic retinopathy continues to undergo modification and redefinition. The most common indications for diabetic vitrectomy include: 1) severe nonclearing vitreous hemorrhage; 2) traction retinal detachment recently involving the macula; 3) combined traction and rhegmatogenous detachment; 4) progressive fibrovascular proliferation; and 5) rubeosis iridis and vitreous hemorrhage for eyes in which the media opacity has prevented adequate laser photocoagulation. Other less common indications in selected cases include dense premacular hemorrhage, ghost cell glaucoma, macular edema with premacular traction, cataract preventing treatment of severe, proliferative diabetic retinopathy, anterior hyaloidal fibrovascular proliferation, and fibrinoid syndrome with retinal detachment. The rationale and surgical objectives are discussed and results are summarized.     

增生型糖尿病视网膜病变玻璃体切除手术后再出血病因及治疗

目的 分析增生型糖尿病视网膜病变(PDR)玻璃体切割手术后再出血病因，观察再治疗效果。 方法 回顾分析302例PDR患者315只患眼接受玻璃体切割手术治疗后32只眼再出血并再次治疗后随访3~48个月（平均随访时间12个月）的临床资料。 结果 PDR玻璃体切割手术后再出血发生率为10%，再出血发生时间为手术后1～210 d，平均时间为51 d。再出血的主要原因中，28%为巩膜切口纤维血管向内生长，19%为视盘表面残存新生血管膜或血管残端处理不当，22%为视网膜激光光凝不足，9%为视网膜表面新生血管膜剥除不彻底，6%为视网膜静脉阻塞，16%为外力作用。通过冷凝巩膜切口处纤维血管、剥离视盘和视网膜表面残存新生血管膜并电凝视盘表面血管残端、补充视网膜激光光凝、 包扎双眼等治疗，再出血眼视力提高者占91%，视力下降者占9%。再次手术后并发症主要包括再次出血、虹膜后粘连、晶状体混浊加重、角膜上皮愈合延迟等。 结论 PDR玻璃体切割手术治疗后再出血的主要原因是巩膜切口纤维血管向内生长、视盘表面和（或）视网膜表面新生血管膜剥除不彻底、血管残端处理不当、视网膜激光光凝不足和外力作用。处理好巩膜切口、彻底剥离视盘和视网膜表面新生血管膜、电凝血管残端以及足够的视网膜激光光凝是预防和治疗PDR玻璃体切割手术后再出血的有效方法。(中华眼底病杂志,2007,23:238-240)      

2型糖尿病患者增生性糖尿病视网膜病变玻璃体切割术后玻璃体再积血原因分析

背景 玻璃体切割术是治疗2型糖尿病患者增生性糖尿病视网膜病变（PDR）的有效方法,但术后再次出现玻璃体积血是导致患者视力再次下降的主要原因之一.目的 分析2型糖尿病PDR患者行玻璃体切割术后玻璃体再积血的相关因素,探讨其预防及处理方法.方法 采用系列病例回顾性研究的方法,收集2006年2月至2012年12月在首都医科大学宣武医院及北京同仁医院接受玻璃体切割术的305例2型糖尿病PDR患者305例305眼的临床资料,对其中14例14眼术后发生玻璃体积血的原因、表现和治疗效果进行分析.结果 305例糖尿病PDR患者接受玻璃体切割术后发生玻璃体积血者14例,发生率为4.6％,其中3例眼底病变为PDRⅣ期,4例为Ⅴ期,7例为Ⅵ期.14眼均经标准睫状体切口玻璃体切割术,术中均给予眼内激光光凝,1眼行巩膜外冷凝术,8眼行玻璃体腔内硅油填充.首次玻璃体切割术后6眼视力提高,4眼术后视力无改变,4眼视力较术前下降.术后再次出现玻璃体积血的时间为术后1～7d者9眼,术后8d～3个月者1眼,术后3～6个月者2眼,术后6个月以上者2眼.玻璃体再积血的原因主要为新生血管膜残留、激光光凝范围和强度不足、新生血管形成及血糖浓度不稳定.5眼药物治疗后玻璃体积血吸收,9眼再次行玻璃体手术.最终9眼视力提高,2眼视力不变,3眼视力下降;13眼患眼视网膜复位,1眼硅油填充术后视网膜仍未复位.结论 PDR行玻璃体切割术后玻璃体再积血多发生于术后1周内,与视网膜新生血管残留、眼内激光光凝不充分及血糖水平控制欠佳有关.出血量较少的患者玻璃体积血可以自行吸收或可行药物治疗,出血量较大且持续不吸收的患者需要再次行玻璃体切割术.     

Talc retinopathy

Twenty-three patients had bilateral intraretinal talc microemboli, which were seen on ophthalmoscopic examination. Twelve of these patients had additional retinal vascular or choroidal abnormalities in the posterior pole that were confirmed by fluorescein angiography. Six patients had peripheral retinal neovascularization associated with peripheral retinal vascular nonperfusion. Of these six patients, three had associated vitreous hemorrhage, and two had optic disk neovascularization and traction retinal detachment. The progressive fundus changes seen in talc retinopathy were documented by fluorescein angiography and compared to those seen in sickle-cell retinopathy. One eye in one patient was treated by argon laser photocoagulation for proliferative retinopathy, and three eyes in two patients with vitreous hemorrhage were treated by pars plana vitrectomy.     

23G玻切术治疗PDR术后早期出血的危险因素分析

目的：分析23G玻璃体切割术治疗增生型糖尿病视网膜病变(PDR)术后早期发生出血的危险因素。

方法：回顾性分析2016-06/2018-01于我院行23G玻璃体切割术治疗的PDR患者100例100眼的临床资料,根据术后早期(1mo内)是否发生玻璃体出血分为早期玻璃体出血组(27例)和无玻璃体出血组(73例),分析术后早期发生玻璃体出血的危险因素。

结果：两组患者年龄、术前抗VEGF治疗、术前存在纤维血管膜增殖、术中视盘新生血管出血、术中注入气体情况有明显差异(P<0.01),其中术前存在纤维血管膜增殖、术中存在视盘新生血管出血是导致术后早期出血的独立危险因素。

结论：23G玻璃体切割术治疗PDR术后早期玻璃体出血主要发生于眼底病变严重者,术前存在纤维血管膜增殖及术中视盘新生血管出血会增加其发生风险。     

Management of diabetic retinopathy

Diabetic retinopathy remains a major cause of blindness despite increased understanding of this disease and identification of successful treatments. The Diabetic Retinopathy Study identified risk factors associated with a high risk of blindness and confirmed the benefits of panretinal photocoagulation. The Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study defined the retinal characteristics, indications of treatment and results of laser treatment of clinically significant macular oedema. The Diabetic Retinopathy Vitrectomy study established the benefits and timing of vitrectomy for non-clearing vitreous haemorrhage and severe proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial and the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study have also demonstrated the value of tight control of blood sugar and blood pressure in diabetic retinopathy. These studies developed specific recommendations for the management of diabetic retinopathy. Optimum use of this information can minimize visual loss due to diabetic retinopathy.     

Pars plana vitrectomy in the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study. ETDRS report number 17. The Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study Research Group.

BACKGROUND: The Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS) enrolled 3711 patients with mild-to-severe nonproliferative or early proliferative diabetic retinopathy in both eyes. Patients were randomly assigned to aspirin 650 mg/day or placebo. One eye of each patient was assigned randomly to early photocoagulation and the other to deferral of photocoagulation. Follow-up examinations were scheduled at least every 4 months, and photocoagulation was initiated in eyes assigned to deferral as soon as high-risk proliferative retinopathy was detected. Aspirin was not found to have an effect on retinopathy progression or rates of vitreous hemorrhage. The risk of a combined end point, severe visual loss or vitrectomy, was low in eyes assigned to deferral (6% at 5 years) and was reduced by early photocoagulation (4% at 5 years). Vitrectomy was carried out in 208 patients during the 9 years of the study. This report presents baseline and previtrectomy characteristics and visual outcome in these patients. METHODS: Information collected at baseline and during follow-up as part of the ETDRS protocol was supplemented by review of clinic charts for visual acuity and ocular status immediately before vitrectomy. RESULTS: Vitrectomy was performed in 208 (5.6%) of the 3711 patients (243 eyes) enrolled in the ETDRS. The 5-year vitrectomy rates for eyes grouped by their initial photocoagulation assignment were as follows: 2.1% in the early full scatter photocoagulation group, 2.5% in the early mild scatter group, and 4.0% in the deferral group. The 5-year rates of vitrectomy (in one or both eyes) were 5.4% in patients assigned to aspirin and 5.2% in patients assigned to a placebo. The indications for vitrectomy were either vitreous hemorrhage (53.9%) or retinal detachment with or without vitreous hemorrhage (46.1%). Before vitrectomy, visual acuity was 5/200 or worse in 66.7% of eyes and better than 20/100 in 6.2%. One year after vitrectomy, the visual acuity was 20/100 or better in 47.6% of eyes, including 24.0% with visual acuity of 20/40 or better. CONCLUSIONS: With frequent follow-up examinations and timely scatter (panretinal) photocoagulation, the 5-year cumulative rate of pars plana vitrectomy in ETDRS patients was 5.3%. Aspirin use did not influence the rate of vitrectomy.     

Vitrectomy in florid proliferative diabetic retinopathy

In 11 eyes out of 7 patients, vitrectomy was performed for progressive proliferative diabetic retinopathy. The indication for vitrectomy was as follows: (1) macular traction with fibrovascular proliferation on the disk; (2) progressive proliferation with vitreous hemorrhage; (3) fibrovascular proliferation on the disk in spite of intensified scattered photocoagulation. 3 eyes were operated a second time, 1 needed a third vitrectomy after nonresolving hemorrhage. Visual acuity increased after vitrectomy in 9 eyes. In 4 eyes new proliferations on the disk occurred. After an observation period of 1 year, 7 eyes show a stable course.     

Chirurgische Therapie der diabetischen Retinopathie und Makulopathie

Surgical therapy of diabetic retinopathy has been refined since the Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study (ETDRS). ETDRS did not perform panretinal photocoagulation at the time of surgery, which is currently considered a major part of vitrectomy, e.g., in vitreous hemorrhage. Despite improved surgical techniques, patient expectations and surgical outcome still differ considerably in severe cases of proliferative diabetic retinopathy. In this review of the literature we discuss the current surgical options and indications in diabetic retinopathy and maculopathy.     

Anterior hyaloidal fibrovascular proliferation after diabetic vitrectomy

Vitrectomy was performed to treat 74 consecutive eyes for complications of diabetic retinopathy. Eight (13%) of 61 eyes followed up for an average of 12 months developed anterior hyaloidal fibrovascular proliferation. This was the most common postoperative complication, whose features included recurrent hemorrhages into the vitreous cavity or anterior vitreous, or both; vessels or fibrovascular tissue on the posterior lens capsule; anterior extraretinal vascularization extending toward the lens on the anterior hyaloid; traction detachment of the peripheral retina or ciliary body; and hypotony. Patients who developed this complication tended to be young males with severe retinal neovascularization and extensive retinal ischemia; traction retinal detachment as an indication for surgery; placement of a scleral buckle; postoperative rubeosis iridis, recurrent vitreous hemorrhages, and retinal detachment; and multiple surgeries. Four eyes progressed to atrophia bulbi. Early recognition followed by additional surgery in two patients and extensive additional photocoagulation in two other patients was successful in preserving good visual function.     

Total en bloc excision: a modified vitrectomy technique for proliferative diabetic retinopathy

PURPOSE: To report a modified vitrectomy technique for proliferative diabetic retinopathy. DESIGN: Interventional case series. METHODS: In the modified vitrectomy technique for proliferative diabetic retinopathy, core vitrectomy is performed, followed by separation of the glial ring from the optic disk using a hook or forceps. The posterior hyaloid membrane, including proliferative tissues, is lifted and peeled from the posterior to the peripheral retina without creating a window in the posterior hyaloid membrane. At any strong vitreoretinal adhesion site, the posterior hyaloid is partially removed, followed by membrane delamination. RESULTS: In the 18 eyes that underwent the modified technique, iatrogenic retinal breaks occurred less often compared with the 48 eyes that underwent the conventional technique. The difference was not statistically significant (P =.14), but the surgical time was significantly reduced (P =.0003). The glial ring and proliferative tissue arising from the optic disk can be readily separated, and other adhesion sites can be satisfactorily peeled after separating the posterior hyaloid membrane around the optic disk. CONCLUSIONS: This modified vitrectomy technique for proliferative diabetic retinopathy may be an alternative surgical technique to the conventional technique.     

Histopathological findings in proliferative membrane from a patient with sarcoid uveitis.

BACKGROUND: Sarcoid uveitis is occasionally accompanied by proliferative changes, such as retinal neovascularization and vitreous hemorrhage. Steroid administration, retinal photocoagulation, and vitrectomy may be indicated in such proliferative cases. CASE: A 19-year-old woman presented with proliferative sarcoid uveitis accompanied by recurrent vitreous hemorrhage. OBSERVATIONS: At the initial examination, bilateral vitreous opacity, retinal exudates, mild vitreous hemorrhage, retinal vasculitis, and neovascularization of the retina and optic disc were observed. Although prednisolone was administered and panretinal photocoagulation was performed several times, recurrent vitreous hemorrhage continued. Since the vitreous hemorrhage was not absorbed, pars plana vitrectomy and lensectomy were performed. After surgery, neovascularization and intraocular inflammation decreased, and the corrected visual acuity in the right eye improved to 20/50. Histopathologic analysis of the proliferative membrane removed during surgery revealed substantial neovascularization and numerous neutrophils in the vessels. CONCLUSIONS: Based on these findings, an inflammatory reaction as well as retinal ischemia were thought to be involved in the proliferative changes in this patient.     

Diabetic vitrectomy

Proliferative diabetic retinopathy is one of the leading causes of permanent vision loss. Vitrectomy for the complications of proliferative changes has resulted in preservation of vision. Recent studies have focused on the cellular and structural changes in patients with proliferative changes. Data obtained from the early Treatment of Diabetic Retinopathy Study show that the rate of vitrectomy is reduced in eyes that have early-scatter photocoagulation in comparison with those that have deferral of treatment. The efficacy and complications of silicone oil tamponade have been more carefully evaluated with respect to complex detachments associated with proliferative diabetic retinopathy.     

Pars plana vitrectomy and panretinal photocoagulation combined with trabeculectomy for successful treatment of neovascular glaucoma

Background Treatment of neovascular glaucoma (NVG) must be focused on the reduction of intraocular pressure (IOP) and prompt application of pan retinal photocoagulation (PRP). A combination of complete PRP during vitrectomy with trabeculectomy should theoretically be a better method to lower the IOP rapidly in eyes with NVG. The purpose of our study is to assess the efficacy of combining pars plana vitrectomy and PRP with trabeculectomy assisted by mitomycin C (MMC) on NVG eyes secondary to diabetic retinopathy.Methods Twenty-five eyes with NVG associated with diabetic retinopathy had pars plana vitrectomy, followed by PRP and trabeculectomy with MMC. The eyes were divided into two groups: nine eyes with vitreous hemorrhage, fibrovascular membrane and/or retinal detachment were placed in the Proliferation group; and 16 eyes without vitreous hemorrhage, fibrovascular membrane, or retinal detachment were placed in the PC (photocoagulation) group. These eyes had vitrectomy performed so that PRP could be safely performed from ora to ora. The surgical outcome in the two groups was assessed by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. The criteria for success were a postoperative intraocular pressure (IOP) ≤21 mmHg and a preservation of light perception.Results In the Proliferation group, Kaplan-Meier life-table analysis showed that the success rate was 55.6% after 1 year and 18.5% after 2 years. The success rate in the PC group was 81.2% from 1 to 3 years after surgery. The surgical outcome was significantly better in the PC group than in the Proliferation group (P=0.009). In the Proliferation group, four eyes had preoperative vitreous hemorrhage, three eyes had a fibrovascular membrane, and two eyes had a retinal detachment. Three of four eyes with vitreous hemorrhage achieved good IOP control. On the other hand, the IOP of all eyes with retinal detachment and fibrovascular membrane were not lowered significantly.Conclusions Complete PRP combined with trabeculectomy with MMC can effectively reduce the elevated IOP in eyes with NVG. However, this combined treatment is not effective in eyes with proliferative membranes and retinal detachments.     

进展型增生性糖尿病视网膜病变玻璃体 切割手术的价值与意义

目的了解有不同并发症的进展型增生性糖尿病视网膜病变眼进行玻璃体手术的结果。方法将患有Ⅰ、Ⅱ型糖尿病进展型增生性糖尿病视网膜病变的314只眼分为玻璃体积血合并局限牵拉性视网膜脱离组;广泛纤维血管膜合并牵拉性视网膜脱离组;牵拉孔源混合性视网膜脱离组;玻璃体积血视网膜脱离合并老年性白内障行玻璃体手术联合白内障摘除及人工晶状体植入组,分别进行回顾性分析。结果玻璃体积血合并局限牵拉性视网膜脱离组中Ⅰ、Ⅱ型糖尿病患 者手术后获得0.1以上视力的分别占39.4%和66.7%,广泛纤维血管膜合并牵拉性视网膜脱离组中Ⅰ、Ⅱ型糖尿病患者手术后获得0.1以上视力的分别占31.6%和51.6%,牵拉孔源混合性视网膜脱离组手术后获得0.1以上视力者占31.6%,玻璃体积血视网膜脱离合并老年性白内障行玻璃体手术联合白内障摘除及人工晶状体植入组手术后获得0.1以上视力者占62.5%。首要的术中 并发症是医源性视网膜裂孔,术后视力丧失的主要原因包括新生血管性青光眼、视网膜脱离和视网膜中央动脉阻塞。结论玻璃体切割手术联合全视网膜光凝术,能有效地改善进展性糖尿病视网膜病变患者的视力。(中华眼底病杂志,2001,17:171-174)     

糖尿病视网膜病变的分级标准初探

本文参考国际糖尿病视网膜病变（DR）严重程度分级、“DR早期治疗研究组”（ETDRS）的分级标准及我国DR的严重程度分级，将DR分为非增生性和增生性两型。根据视网膜出血斑多少（出血斑〈10个、10～19个、≥20个）、丝棉斑、视网膜内微血管异常（IRMA）及静脉串珠在各象限的分布将非增生性DR分为轻、中、重度，并将纤维增生、牵拉性视网膜脱离、虹膜红变、新生血管性青光眼、缺血性视神经病变作为DR并发症。     

Diabetic retinopathy – An update

Management of diabetes should involve both systemic and ocular aspects. Control of hyperglycemia, hypertension and dyslipidemia are of major role in the management of diabetic retinopathy. In the ocular part; laser treatment remains the cornerstone of treatment of diabetic macular edema (focal/grid), severe non-proliferative and proliferative diabetic retinopathy (panretinal photocoagulation). There is a strong support to combination therapy. Using one or two intravitreal injections such as anti-VEGF and or steroid to reduce central macular thickness followed by focal or grid laser to give a sustained response may offer an alternative to treatment in diabetic macular edema. Anti-VEGF were found to be effective as an adjunct therapy in proliferative diabetic retinopathy patient who is going to have vitrectomy for vitreous hemorrhage with neovascularization, panretinal photocoagulation, and other ocular surgery such as cases with neovascular glaucoma and cataract with refractory macular edema.     

玻璃体切除联合白内障手术治疗55例PDR疗效分析

目的:评价玻璃体切除联合晶状体超声乳化及人工晶状体植入术治疗增生性糖尿病视网膜病变(PDR)的疗效及并发症。方法:回顾性分析55例68眼伴有白内障的PDR患者行玻璃体切除联合晶状体超声乳化及人工晶状体植入术的临床资料,观察术后视力改善程度及术中、术后并发症。结果:术后随访3～24(平均8.5)mo。51眼(75%)术后视力维持或改善,17眼(25%)视力下降,其中无光感6眼(9%);术中并发症为医源性视网膜裂孔15眼(22%);术后并发症:前房炎性反应30眼(44%),玻璃体积血11眼(16%),复发性视网膜脱离3眼(4%),虹膜红变5眼(7%),新生血管性青光眼2眼(3%);31眼(46%)术后需要继续眼内光凝。结论:玻璃体切除联合晶状体超声乳化及人工晶状体植入术治疗PDR,可使大多数患者的视力改善,手术是安全的,手术成功的关键为选择合适的患者,影响术后视力的主要因素为视网膜病变程度。     

Different outcome among eyes with proliferative diabetic retinopathy indicated for vitrectomy

PURPOSE: The postoperative outcome was evaluated in each group of surgical indications of vitreous surgery for proliferative diabetic retinopathy (PDR), to investigate the factors responsible for postoperative visual prognosis. METHODS: Primary vitrectomy was performed in 119 eyes of 92 patients with PDR. Average postoperative follow-up period was 19 months. The indications for vitrectomy included vitrous hemorrhage in 58 eyes, macular tractional retinal detachment in 17 eyes, extramacular tractional retinal detachment in 10 eyes, macular heterotopia in 11 eyes, and progressive fibrovascular proliferation in the posterior fundus in 23 eyes. RESULTS: The visual acuity finally improved by 2 lines or more in 91 eyes (77%), remained unchanged in 10 eyes (8 %), and decreased by 2 lines or more in 18 eyes (15%). Final postoperative visual acuity was significantly better in cases of vitreous hemorrhage or progressive fibrovascular proliferation in the posterior fundus than in others. Preoperative rubeosis iridis and macular tractional retinal detachment were probably responsible for the final visual impairment, and intraocular tamponade affected the difference in visual prognosis between the groups of surgical indication. Multivariate analysis in all cases revealed that factors influencing visual outcome were preoperative rubeosis iridis and anemia. CONCLUSION: Rubeosis iridis and macular tractional retinal detachment were prognostic factors of the surgery. Vitrectomy for PDR may be effective in improving postoperative visual acuity if performed in the early stage of progressive fibrovascular proliferation in the posterior fundus after sufficient retinal photocoagulation.