Infant feeding practices of Pakistani mothers in England and Pakistan

Objectives To investigate infant feeding practices followed by Pakistani mothers in Pakistan and in England. To establish if practices conform to current guidelines and to investigate reasons for adherence and nonadherence. Methods Ninety mothers of weaning age children were interviewed; 45 were in England and 45 in Pakistan. A questionnaire available in English and Urdu sought to find out about the methods of milk feeding and weaning used and the advice received, together with general beliefs about weaning. Results Characteristics of the infants in terms of current age, gender distribution, birth order of baby and age of weaning showed no significant differences between the two groups. Thus, differences between the two groups could be attributed to cultural differences rather than any of these factors. Chi‐square analysis showed that the initial method of feeding chosen was significantly different (P < 0.001, d.f. = 2) with 73% of mothers in Pakistan breast‐feeding compared with 24% in England. Similar proportions of mothers in both groups commenced weaning between 3 and 4 months. Common weaning foods included rice, cereals and eggs with progression to fruit and vegetables and family food in Pakistan, and fruit, vegetables, meat and convenience foods (especially sweet options) in England. Both groups of mothers wanted more information about infant feeding practices. Conclusion Mothers in Pakistan demonstrated more confidence in weaning practices than in England because of experiences with other siblings and advice from relatives. More advice from health professionals was requested and is needed by all mothers in order to improve weaning practices of the infants.     

Nutrition during pregnancy may be associated with allergic diseases in infants

The prevalence of allergic diseases is high in Japan, even in infants. Their risk for developing allergies is influenced by the antigens in the mother's diet during pregnancy. We hypothesized that, apart from the antigens, hypersensitivity induced through high energy and nutrient intake by mothers during pregnancy may be a factor for allergic diseases in their babies. In this study, we tried to confirm our hypothesis. Allergy histories of parents and their infants, body characteristics and food and nutrient intake were measured by a questionnaire and a food frequency questionnaire, respectively. A total of 2,642 responses were obtained (return rate, 94.7%). The major allergic diseases in the infants were atopic dermatitis (6.0%), food allergy (3.7%) and bronchial asthma or asthmatic bronchitis (3.2%). About 60% of the infants with allergies had a family history of allergies. Family history of allergy, age of infant, order of birth, head and chest circumferences of infants, BMI of mothers before pregnancy and delivery and intake of lipids (fat and vegetable oil) and vegetables by mothers related positively, and the intake of protein, carbohydrates and milk and its products correlated negatively with allergic diseases in the infants (p < 0.05). The results, together with previous reports, suggest that a high intake of energy and lipids (fat and vegetable oil) during pregnancy may accelerate allergic diseases in infants.     

Food-related sensory experience from birth through weaning: contrasted patterns in two nearby European regions

This study describes infant feeding practices among mothers from two European regions from the perspective of early sensory experiences. Two groups of mothers, one in Dijon , France (n=139), the other in Aalen , Germany (n=157) with infants aged 4-9 months were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Clear between- and within-group differences in weaning practices were found, particularly with respect to breastfeeding duration (Aalen>Dijon) and exposure to flavour variety early in weaning (Dijon>Aalen). By 4 months, 65% of infants in Dijon and 20% in Aalen, had received their first non-milk, solid foods. Before beginning to wean, 39% of mothers in Dijon offered their infant a variety of foods "just for a taste". This was the case for only 25% of mothers in Aalen. During the first 28 days of weaning, infants in Dijon were offered a greater number of vegetables compared to those in Aalen and more frequent changes from day-to-day. Thus, while Aalen infants were likely to be exposed for a longer period to different sensory experiences via breast milk, Dijon infants tended to be exposed to a greater flavour variety during the first weeks of weaning.     

Maternal Control of Child Feeding During the Weaning Period: Differences Between Mothers Following a Baby-led or Standard Weaning Approach

A controlling maternal feeding style has been shown to have a negative impact on child eating style and weight in children over the age of 12 months. The current study explores maternal feeding style during the period of 6–12 months when infants are introduced to complementary foods. Specifically it examines differences between mothers who choose to follow a traditional weaning approach using spoon feeding and pureés to mothers following a baby-led approach where infants are allowed to self feed foods in their solid form. Seven hundred and two mothers with an infant aged 6–12 months provided information regarding weaning approach alongside completing the Child Feeding Questionnaire. Information regarding infant weight and perceived size was also collected. Mothers following a baby-led feeding style reported significantly lower levels of restriction, pressure to eat, monitoring and concern over child weight compared to mothers following a standard weaning response. No association was seen between weaning style and infant weight or perceived size. A baby-led weaning style was associated with a maternal feeding style which is low in control. This could potentially have a positive impact upon later child weight and eating style. However due to the cross sectional nature of the study it cannot be ascertained whether baby-led weaning encourages a feeding style which is low in control to develop or whether mothers who are low in control choose to follow a baby-led weaning style.     

Parental pressure, dietary patterns, and weight status among girls who are "picky eaters"

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether mothers' fruit and vegetable intake and mothers' use of pressure in the feeding domain when their daughters were 7 years old predicted picky eating and dietary intake when their daughters were 9 years old, and to examine diet and weight status in picky and nonpicky eaters. DESIGN/SUBJECTS: Participants were 173 9-year-old non-Hispanic white girls and their mothers. A longitudinal analysis was used to assess maternal influences on picky eating and diet. A cross-sectional analysis was used to examine diet and weight status between picky and nonpicky eaters. Measures included maternal feeding practices, daughters' pickiness, mothers' fruit and vegetable intake, daughters' food intake, and weight status. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: t tests examined differences between picky and nonpicky eaters. Structural equation modeling examined relationships among mothers' fruit and vegetable intake; child feeding practices; daughters' pickiness; and fruit, vegetable, micronutrient, and fiber intakes. RESULTS: Mothers consuming more fruits and vegetables were less likely to pressure their daughters to eat and had daughters who were less picky and consumed more fruits and vegetables. Picky eaters consumed fewer fruits and vegetables, but also fewer fats and sweets. All girls consumed low amounts of vitamin E, calcium, and magnesium, but more picky girls were at risk for not meeting recommendations for vitamins E and C and also consumed significantly less fiber. In addition, picky eaters were less likely to be overweight. CONCLUSIONS: Mothers influenced daughters' fruit and vegetable intake via their own patterns of fruit and vegetable intake and by influencing their daughters' tendencies to be picky eaters. Both picky and nonpicky eaters had aspects of their diets that did not meet recommendations. Taken together, these findings suggest that parents should focus less on "picky eating" behavior and more on modeling fruit and vegetable consumption for their children.     

Infant feeding practices and maternal dietary intake among Latino immigrants in California

Mothers of 8–16-month-old infants were surveyed to examine infant feeding practices and maternal dietary intake associated with increased years of residency by Mexican immigrant families (n = 1093 mother–infant pairs). Mothers were recruited from San Diego and Contra Costa counties in California during 1992–93. Twenty-nine percent of Mexican mothers living in the United States for <6 years breastfed their infants exclusively for at least 16 weeks; only 20% of mothers living in the United States between 6 and 15 years and 17% of mothers residing in the United States for over 15 years engaged in exclusive breastfeeding. Neither breastfeeding duration nor the introduction of solids differed by years of residency. In contrast, maternal dietary intake varied markedly. Second generation mothers and those living in the United States the longest had significantly higher intakes of vegetables, low fat milk, salty snacks, animal protein, and cereals. Beyond early caregiving practices, the influence of years of residency on the diets of toddlers is less than that of the mothers.     

Rattling the plate--reasons and rationales for early weaning

To identify a range of attitudes and beliefs which influence the timing of introduction to solid food, five focus group discussions were undertaken within a maternity hospital setting. These sessions explored early feeding behaviour, stimuli to changing feeding habits and subsequent responses in 22 primiparous and seven multiparous mothers (mean age 27.0+/-4.8 years) with babies aged 8-18 weeks (mean age 13.0+/-4.2 weeks). One-third of the participants had introduced solid food to their infants (mean age of introduction 11.6 weeks, range 2-16 weeks). Mothers believed that the introduction of solids was baby led and initiated by some physical characteristic or behavioural action of the infant. All mothers were aware of current recommendations to avoid the introduction of solid food until 4 months. Few knew why this should be and concepts of long-term ill health were difficult to conceptualize. The conflict between rigid feeding guidelines and flexible advice from supportive health professionals created confusion over the importance of good weaning practices. The current findings highlight issues relevant to the introduction of solid food, and provide a foundation for further research which can identify the relative importance of these factors and provide a rationale for the design of contemporary intervention strategies.     

Feeding infants and young children. From guidelines to practice

Following a workshop on infant feeding held at the Rowett Institute of Nutrition and Health, University of Aberdeen on March 17, 2010 experts were invited to exchange ideas and to review evidence on both pre and post natal dietary environments in shaping children's eating habits. A central theme during the workshop was the idea of “sensitive periods” during infancy for learning about foods and a particular focus was developed around acceptance and intake of fruits and vegetables. Presentations covered the guidelines provided by various governments on how to feed infants during weaning; the importance of the in utero experience; the impact of varying the sensory experience at weaning; the effect of parenting styles and practices on children's eating habits; the use of visual experience in promoting intake of vegetables; and reports from mothers regarding their decisions about weaning and the introduction of vegetables. This collection of papers seeks to review guidance from governments on feeding infants and to consider current evidence on parental feeding practices with the aim of enhancing insight into best practice in establishing healthy eating in children.     

Beliefs and practices in infant feeding among the Wagogo of Chigongwe (Dodoma rural district), Tanzania. II. Weaning

Anthropologic research conducted among the Wagogo, a semipastoral people in central Tanzania, elaborated the critical role that mothers play in the growth and development of their infants during the periods of breast feeding and weaning. 114 mothers recruited from a local health facility were interviewed. Most breast-fed infants are provided with additional foods after 3-4 months, but breast feeding on demand continues. The first traditional baby food is a thin soup of millet flour and water. Over time, more ingredients are added to the gruel and it is thickened. At about 12 months, the infant is given uwugali--a stiff sorghum or millet porridge that is the staple of the adult diet. Many children are completely weaned at 24-30 months for a range of reasons: desire for another pregnancy, the general developmental level of the child, the mother's assessment that her milk supply is dwindling. The weaning process lasts just 1 day. Mothers often place noxious substances on their breasts to repel the child or tell the child an animal defecated on her breasts. When possible, weaning occurs during the rainy season when more food is available. Immediate weaning also occurs if a mother violates the postpartum sex taboo and becomes pregnant again.     

Relationship between home fruit and vegetable availability and infant and maternal dietary intake in African-American families: evidence from the exhaustive home food inventory

Background

The availability of foods in the home is likely to be related to consumption. We know of no studies that have reported this association in African-American participants, and few studies have examined home food availability using objective methods.

Objective

This study aimed to assess the association between objective measures of fruits and vegetables in the home with reported infant and maternal diet in low-income African Americans.

Design

A cross-sectional study design was used to compare food availability and dietary intake. The Exhaustive Home Food Availability Inventory used barcode scanning to measure food availability in the home. Maternal and infant diet was assessed by 24-hour recall.

Subjects/setting

Eighty African-American first-time mother/infant dyads were recruited from Wake and Durham counties in North Carolina.

Statistical analyses performed

Adjusted mean dietary intake of infants and mothers was calculated within tertiles of food and nutrient availability using analysis of variance. The bootstrap method was used to estimate P values and 95% confidence intervals. Models were adjusted for mother's age, household size, shopping and eating-out behavior.

Results

Infants and mothers living in homes in the highest tertile of availability of energy, nutrients, and fruits and vegetables tended to have the highest consumption, respectively; however, statistically significant associations were more likely to occur with infant diet than maternal diet. The relationship was strongest for infant consumption of fruit, with an average of 103.3 g consumed by infants who lived in homes in the highest tertile of availability, compared to 42.5 g in those living in homes in the lowest tertile (P<0.05).

Conclusions

Availability of fruits and vegetables in the home was associated with intake of those foods in a sample of African-American mothers and infants. Results support making changes in the home environment as a method of promoting changes in fruit and vegetable intake.     

Maternal control of child‐feeding during breast and formula feeding in the first 6 months post‐partum

Background: Mothers who breastfeed use lower levels of control over later child diet. The baby‐led nature of breastfeeding may encourage this low control to develop. Alternatively maternal desire for control may drive breastfeeding duration. The present study explored whether differences in maternal control are present during milk feeding and whether these stem from or drive breastfeeding duration. Methods: Five hundred and two mothers with an infant aged 6–12 months completed a modified retrospective version of the child‐feeding questionnaire adapted to reflect milk feeding during the first 6 months post‐partum. Participants were recruited from mother and baby groups and online parenting forums. Mothers recalled their use of encouraging intake and scheduling feeds in relation to their infant’s intake of milk. Attitudes towards breastfeeding were also measured, including views that breastfeeding is inconvenient, difficult and that formula‐fed infants were more content. Results: Compared to mothers who formula‐fed or ceased breastfeeding within 1 week, mothers who breastfed for at least 6 months recalled a lower use of scheduling and encouraging milk feeds. Mothers who initiated breastfeeding but ceased within 1 week reported lower control compared to exclusive formula feeders. A high level of scheduling feeds was associated with considering that breastfeeding was inconvenient and a greater perceived infant size, whereas encouraging feeds was associated with considering that breastfeeding was difficult, low maternal confidence and a smaller perceived infant size. Conclusions: Maternal desire for control may drive breastfeeding duration. A controlling maternal feeding style may therefore be dispositional and present much earlier than current studies suggest.     

Socio-cultural factors influencing nutritional status of infants -- a longitudinal study

During 1985-1986 in India, health workers went to the homes of 200 infants, 1-11 months old at the time they were brought into the study, and followed them until they reached one year. The researchers aimed to evaluate the role of weaning in determining the nutritional status of infants as well as to identify the sociocultural factors affecting weaning practices in the rural area near Aligarh. 99% of the infants received a prelacteal feed, especially ghutti (94%), within 6 hours of delivery. 99% were breast fed. Breast feeding began between 6 and 72 hours of birth. Almost all mothers believed ghutti cleanses the intestines and that colostrum is harmful. They discarded the colostrum. 73.5% of infants received top diluted milk. Mothers did not feed undiluted milk to their infants because they believed it causes diarrhea. 50.5% of mothers did not give their infants semi-solid foods until after 9 months. 20.5% did not give any semi-solid or solid food at one year. They all thought that semi-solid food causes diarrhea. 62.5% of infants received family food. 15% received biscuits. 98% had poor knowledge about nutritional requirements of infants, other than that breast milk is the natural food of infants. Most mothers practiced poor hygiene. Infants less than 6 months old were significantly more likely to have normal nutrition for age than those older than 6 months old (65.5% vs. 32.4%). Nutritional status declined with age, reflecting the unhygienic weaning practices in the area. At the end of 12 months, 6.8% suffered from severe grades of malnutrition. Nutritional status was not associated with social class. Educational status of mothers and fathers was significantly associated with nutritional status. These findings show that inadequate knowledge about proper weaning, not lack of food, is the limiting factor in infant nutrition. Education about the importance of proper weaning and weaning foods imparted by grass-root level workers is needed.     

No difference in self‐reported frequency of choking between infants introduced to solid foods using a baby‐led weaning or traditional spoon‐feeding approach

Background

Baby‐led weaning (BLW) where infants self‐feed family foods during the period that they are introduced to solid foods is growing in popularity. The method may promote healthier eating patterns, although concerns have been raised regarding its safety. The present study therefore explored choking frequency amongst babies who were being introduced to solid foods using a baby‐led or traditional spoon‐fed approach.

Methods

In total, 1151 mothers with an infant aged 4–12 months reported how they introduced solid foods to their infant (following a strict BLW, loose BLW or traditional weaning style) and frequency of spoon‐feeding and puree use (percentage of mealtimes). Mothers recalled if their infant had ever choked and, if so, how many times and on what type of food (smooth puree, lumpy puree, finger food and specific food examples).

Results

In total, 13.6% of infants (n = 155) had ever choked. No significant association was found between weaning style and ever choking, or the frequency of spoon or puree use and ever choking. For infants who had ever choked, infants following a traditional weaning approach experience significantly more choking episodes for finger foods (F_2,147 = 4.417, P = 0.014) and lumpy purees (F_2,131 = 6.46, P = 0.002) than infants following a strict or loose baby‐led approach.

Conclusions

Baby‐led weaning was not associated with increased risk of choking and the highest frequency of choking on finger foods occurred in those who were given finger foods the least often. However, the limitations of noncausal results, a self‐selecting sample and reliability of recall must be emphasised.     

Early introduction of solid foods among urban African-American participants in WIC

OBJECTIVE: To compare infant feeding practices among low-income, urban, African-American women enrolled in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) with current recommendations for infant feeding. DESIGN: Longitudinal follow-up of women and their infants who participated in a WIC-based breast-feeding promotion project. Women enrolled prenatally at or before 24 weeks of gestation were followed up until 16 weeks postpartum. SUBJECTS/SETTING: Two hundred seventeen African-American WIC participants in an urban area. METHODS: Data related to infant feeding practices were collected by interviewers who used a structured questionnaire to determine when nonmilk liquids or solids were introduced to the infant. Reported practices were compared with current recommendations. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS PERFORMED: Contingency table analysis, including chi 2 tests, and multivariate analysis using logistic regression. RESULTS: By 7 to 10 days postpartum, approximately a third of infants were receiving some nonmilk liquids or solids; this escalated to 77% by 8 weeks and 93% by 16 weeks postpartum. Women breast-feeding exclusively (i.e., not adding nonmilk liquids or solids) were least likely, and women providing mixed feeding (breast milk and formula) were more likely, than women feeding formula exclusively to introduce nonmilk liquids and solids at each data collection time period. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: WIC participants who receive instruction about infant feeding nutrition are no more likely than mothers who do not participate in WIC to follow infant feeding guidelines recommended by the American Academy of Pediatrics in regard to the time when solids should be introduced to infants' diet. Our findings suggest the need for WIC to implement more powerful and innovative educational and motivational strategies to help mothers delay the introduction of nonmilk liquids and solid foods until their infants are 4 to 6 months old, as recommended.     

Weaning practices and breast-feeding duration in Northern Thailand.

Current infant feeding guidelines recommend exclusive breast-feeding until the infant is about 4 months old to reduce the risks of early termination of breast-feeding, undernutrition and infection. In many societies, however, supplementary foods are given well before 4 months of age. The present paper describes weaning practices, factors associated with early supplementation and the effects of supplementation on duration of breast-feeding in a random sample of sixty northern Thai breast-fed infants studied prospectively from birth to 2 years of age. Composition of supplementary foods, energy and protein intake from supplements and changes in the supplementary diet with increasing infant age are also described. Rice-based foods were given from soon after birth; 81% of the sample had received supplements by 6 weeks of age. Early supplementary feeding was significantly associated with rural residence, large household size, maternal employment in agriculture and maternal age. Girls and infants with lower birth weights tended to be supplemented earlier. Despite early feeding of supplements, breast-feeding was prolonged, with median duration of 12 months. Early introduction of supplements and quantity of supplements consumed in the first 3 months were not associated with duration of breast-feeding. However, mothers who gave infant formula as the first supplementary food stopped breast-feeding slightly earlier, as did younger mothers living in households with more children.     

Health Professionals’ Perspectives on the Infant Feeding Practices of Low Income Mothers

The purpose of this study was to determine the perspectives of health professionals on assisting low income mothers with infant feeding. Low income mothers interact with a variety of health professionals through medical care and public health programs. Mothers indicate that health professionals are an important source of infant feeding information; however, they also report this information to be conflicting or difficult to follow. Five focus groups were conducted with 36 health professionals (pediatricians, nurses, WIC professionals, and Cooperative Extension nutrition educators). Individual interviews were also conducted with WIC professionals who were unavailable to meet as a group. Focus groups and interviews were audio taped, transcribed, and analyzed for common content categories. Six major content categories emerged from focus groups and individual interviews with health professionals: (1) Mothers’ sources of infant feeding information, (2) Helping mothers deal with multiple sources of infant feeding advice, (3) Use of infant feeding recommendations by health professionals and their clients (4) Reasons mothers introduce cereal early to their infants (5) Mothers feeding infants in poor mealtime environments, and (6) Ways of providing education to mothers on infant feeding. Conclusions: A better understanding of health professionals’ perspectives on working with low income mothers on infant feeding will inform nutrition education for these mothers, and may also inform strategies to improve communication between mothers and health professionals, subsequently improving infant health.     

More than just a pretty face. The relationship between infant's temperament, food acceptance, and mothers' perceptions of their enjoyment of food

The goal of the present study was to determine whether mothers' assessment of their infants' temperament is associated with objective measures of the infant's acceptance patterns and their judgments of the infants' liking of a green vegetable. To this end, infants (N=92) were video-recorded as their mothers fed them green beans. From these videos, we determined the frequency of facial distaste expressions made during the first 2 min of the feeding. Other measures included intake, maternal ratings of infants' enjoyment of this vegetable, and temperament. Infants who scored high on the approach dimension of the temperament questionnaire were less likely to express facial expressions of distaste, consumed more food, and were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the food more. Mediation analyses revealed that ratings of enjoyment were not directly related to the child's approach temperament, but rather the relationship between mothers' ratings and temperament was mediated by the amount of time infants spent eating the vegetable. Regression analyses suggested that in addition to the length of time children ate, mothers' ratings of their infants' enjoyment was predicted by the number of squints that the infant expressed during the meal. These findings suggest that although certain aspects of children's temperament are related to their food acceptance, mothers attend to facial expressions and time spent eating independently of these temperamental characteristics when judging their infant's enjoyment of a food. Understanding how mothers use this information to decide which foods to feed their infants is an important area for future research.     

A study on the impact of maternal knowledge and practice on the nutritional status of infants

In India, health workers interviewed 123 mothers of infants attending the child health clinic of the S.K. Institute of Medical Sciences in Srinagar to determine whether maternal knowledge and practice were associated with the nutritional status of the infants. 28 children were considered to be well nourished, while the remaining 95 children were determined to be in various degrees of malnutrition. Mothers whose infants were well nourished had a higher level of breast feeding knowledge than did those whose infants were moderate to severely malnourished (score, 27.13 vs. 16.01-18.75; p .0001). None of the mothers of malnourished infants had an excellent score on breast feeding practices. Differences in the mean score values for breast feeding practices between all consecutive grades of nutrition were significant (20.22 for excellent score, 16.85, 15.53, and 14.18 for grades I, II, and III, respectively; p .001). The only mothers who had an excellent score for infant weaning awareness were 3 mothers whose infants had an excellent nutritional status. A significant difference in mean score values for knowledge of infant weaning between mothers of well nourished infants and grade I malnourished infants (26 vs. 17.19; p .001) as well as between those of grade II malnourished infants and grade III malnourished infants (17.06 vs. 13.64; p .01) were significant. Little difference in infant nutritional status existed between mothers who scored fair and those who scored poor, but, among mothers of well nourished infants, those who scored well were more likely to be have infants of good nutritional status than those who did not score well (47.05% v. 19.56% and 18.33%; p .001). These findings show a decreasing trend between awareness and practice of breast feeding/infant weaning, suggesting that further improvement of health education is needed to reduce the lag between breast feeding awareness and practice.     

Predictors of mother-daughter resemblance in dietary intake. The role of eating styles, mothers' consumption, and closeness

The present study examined the resemblance between daughters’ and mothers’ intake of energy-dense food (EDF) and vegetables as perceived by daughters and the potential moderating influence of relationship closeness. One-hundred and twelve female first-year psychology students (aged 17-25 years) completed an online measure incorporating questions on demographic information, food frequency, eating style, and mother-daughter closeness. The EDF and vegetable consumption of daughters and their perception of their mothers’ consumption were significantly related. Daughters who ate more EDF perceived that their mothers consumed more EDF and vegetables overall and had lower levels of restrained eating. Both mothers’ consumption of vegetables (as perceived by daughters) and the number of meals consumed within the family home had a strong influence on daughters’ vegetable intake. Closeness of the mother-daughter relationship did not moderate the relationship between the EDF or vegetable intake of mothers and daughters. Overall, these findings are consistent with the contention that mothers may have a significant influence on the EDF consumption and vegetable intake of their young adult daughters. The mechanism of this influence requires further investigation.     

Variability in eating behavior throughout the weaning period

During the introduction of solid food (usually indicated as the weaning period), infant and caregiver have to adjust their feeding interactions to a completely changed feeding context. In this paper, we argue that these adjustments can be seen as a complex process in which many factors are involved. As a result of these complex interactions, eating behavior can be highly variable between infants and from feed to feed. The aim of this study is to describe these patterns of variability across this critical transition in feeding. The study is based on naturalistic observations of 20 infant–caregiver dyads (15 repeated observations of each dyad), from the first attempt to spoon-feed till 12 weeks after the introduction of solid food. The results show that there is considerable short-term variability in eating behavior (food intake, meal duration, feeding efficiency, and food refusal), especially immediately after the introduction of solid food. The largest intra-individual variability was found in the earliest feeding sessions, which is consistent with the proposition that systems that undergo rapid development are most sensitive to context variables and thus most variable.