Involvement of CCR9 at multiple stages of adult T lymphopoiesis

The chemokine CCL25 is constitutively expressed in the thymus, and its receptor CCR9 is expressed on subsets of developing thymocytes. Nevertheless, the function of CCL25/CCR9 in adult thymopoiesis remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that purified CCR9(-/-) hematopoietic stem cells are deficient in their ability to generate all major thymocyte subsets including double-negative 1 (DN1) cells in competitive transfers. CCR9(-/-) bone marrow contained normal numbers of lineage(-) Sca-1+c-kit+, common lymphoid progenitors, and lymphoid-primed multipotent progenitors (LMPP), and CCR9(-/-) LMPP showed similar T cell potential as their wild-type (WT) counterparts when cultured on OP9-delta-like 1 stromal cells. In contrast, early thymic progenitor and DN2 thymocyte numbers were reduced in the thymus of adult CCR9(-/-) mice. In fetal thymic organ cultures (FTOC), CCR9(-/-) DN1 cells were as efficient as WT DN1 cells in generating double-positive (DP) thymocytes; however, under competitive FTOC, CCR9(-/-) DP cell numbers were reduced significantly. Similarly, following intrathymic injection into sublethally irradiated recipients, CCR9(-/-) DN cells were out-competed by WT DN cells in generating DP thymocytes. Finally, in competitive reaggregation thymic organ cultures, CCR9(-/-) preselection DP thymocytes were disadvantaged significantly in their ability to generate CD4 single-positive (SP) thymocytes, a finding that correlated with a reduced ability to form TCR-MHC-dependent conjugates with thymic epithelial cells. Together, these results highlight a role for CCR9 at several stages of adult thymopoiesis: in hematopoietic progenitor seeding of the thymus, in the DN-DP thymocyte transition, and in the generation of CD4 SP thymocytes.     

The thymus gland: a target organ for growth hormone

Increasing evidence has placed hormones and neuropeptides among potent immunomodulators, in both health and disease. Herein, we focus on the effects of growth hormone (GH) upon the thymus. Exogenous GH enhances thymic microenvironmental cell-derived secretory products such as cytokines and thymic hormones. Moreover, GH increases thymic epithelial cell (TEC) proliferation in vitro, and exhibits a synergistic effect with anti-CD3 in stimulating thymocyte proliferation, which is in keeping with the data showing that transgenic mice overexpressing GH or GH-releasing hormone exhibit overgrowth of the thymus. GH also influences thymocyte traffic: it increases human T-cell progenitor engraftment into the thymus; augments TEC/thymocyte adhesion and the traffic of thymocytes in the lymphoepithelial complexes, the thymic nurse cells; modulates in vivo the homing of recent thymic emigrants, enhancing the numbers of fluroscein isothiocyanate (FITC)+ cells in the lymph nodes and diminishing them in the spleen. In keeping with the effects of GH upon thymic cells is the detection of GH receptors in both TEC and thymocytes. Additionally, data indicate that insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-1 is involved in several effects of GH in the thymus, including the modulation of thymulin secretion, TEC proliferation as well as thymocyte/TEC adhesion. This is in keeping with the demonstration of IGF-1 production and expression of IGF-1 by TEC and thymocytes. Also, it should be envisioned as an intrathymic circuitry, involving not only IGF-1, but also GH itself, as intrathymic GH expression is seen both in TEC and in thymocytes, and that thymocyte-derived GH could enhance thymocyte proliferation. Finally, the possibility that GH improve thymic functions, including thymocyte proliferation and migration, places this molecule as a potential therapeutic adjuvant in immunodeficiency conditions associated with thymocyte decrease and loss of peripheral T cells.     

Role of IL-2 in rat fetal thymocyte development

Early during rat thymus ontogeny, an important proportion of thymocytes expresses IL-2R and contains IL-2 mRNA. To investigate the role of the IL-2-IL-2R complex in rat T cell maturation, we supplied either recombinant rat IL-2 or blocking anti-CD25 mAb to rat fetal thymus organ cultures (FTOC) under several experimental conditions. The IL-2 treatment initially stimulated the growth of thymocytes and, as a result, induced T cell differentiation, but the continuous addition of IL-2 to rat FTOC, as well as the anti-CD25 administration, resulted in cell number decrease and inhibition of thymocyte maturation. These results indicate that immature rat thymocytes bear functional high- affinity IL-2R and that IL-2 promotes T cell differentiation as a consequence of its capacity to stimulate cell proliferation. Modifications in TCR alpha beta repertoire and increased numbers of NKR- P1+ cells, largely NK cells, were also observed in IL-2-treated FTOC. Furthermore, IL-2-responsiveness of different thymocyte subsets changed throughout thymic ontogeny. Immature CD4-CD8-cells responded to IL-2 in two stages, early in thymus development and around birth, in correlation with the maturation of two distinct waves of thymic cell progenitors. Mature CD8+ thymocytes maximally responded to IL-2 around birth, supporting a role for IL-2 in the increased proliferation of mature thymocytes observed in vivo in the perinatal period. Taken together, these findings support a role for IL-2 in rat T cell development.      

Somatostatin and vasoactive intestinal peptide reduce interferon gamma production by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells

There is increasing evidence that neuropeptide modulation of the immune response is an important physiological phenomenon which involves the interaction of peptidergic neuromodulators with specific neuropeptide receptors on the plasma membrane of immune effector cells. Many studies have examined the effect of neuropeptides on mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation and immunoglobulin synthesis but very little is known about specific lymphokine production. In this study, we describe the effect of somatostatin (SOM) and vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) on interferon gamma (IFN-gamma) production by normal human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) stimulated in vitro with polyclonal T cell activator staphylococcal enterotoxin A (SEA). Our findings provide experimental evidence that both SOM and VIP reduce the IFN-gamma production by SEA-stimulated PBMC. This reduction was time- (with maximal effect at 72 h) and dose-dependent (at doses as low as 10(-11) M with maximal effect at concentrations between 10(-9) and 10(-8) M of neuropeptides). This effect was absent in resting PBMC. The meaning of inhibitory effect of VIP and SOM on IFN-gamma production and its role in immune response in vivo are discussed.     

The Recognition of Hypothalamo-Neurohypophysial Functions by Developing T Cells

Neuropeptide signals and specific neuropeptide receptors have been described in the thymus supporting the concept of a close dialogue between the neuroendocrine and the immune systems at the level of early T-cell differentiation. In this paper, we review recent data about neurohypophysial (NHP)-related peptides detected in the thymus from different species. We suggest that we are dealing in fact with other member(s) of the NHP hormone family, which seems to exert its activity locally through a novel model of cell-to-cell signaling, that of cryptocrine communication. This model involves exchange of signals between thymic epithelial cells and developing thymocytes. The NHP-related peptides have been shown to trigger thymocyte proliferation and could induce immune tolerance of this highly conserved neuroendocrine family.     

T cell developmental defects in 'viable motheaten' mice deficient in SHP-1 protein-tyrosine phosphatase. Developmental defects are corrected in vitro in the presence of normal hematopoietic-origin stromal cells and in vivo by exogenous IL-7

Defects in the gene that encodes SHP-1 protein tyrosine phosphatase result in multiple hematopoietic abnormalities and generalized autoimmunity in viable motheaten (me(v)) mice. These mice also exhibit early thymic involution and abnormalities in T cell development. Here, we describe the use of fetal thymic organ culture (FTOC) and bone marrow adoptive transfer to study the effects of SHP-1 deficiency on thymocyte development. Chimeric FTOC established with normal bone marrow placed onto deoxyguanosine-treated fetal thymic lobes or onto scid fetal thymic lobes generated T cells. Bone marrow from SHP-1-deficient me(v)/ me(v) mice generated decreased numbers of T cells in chimeric FTOC established using deoxyguanosine-treated thymi but generated normal numbers in chimeric FTOC established using scid thymi. However, scid fetal thymi seeded with me(v)/ me(v) bone marrow also exhibited morphological abnormalities and contained elevated numbers of macrophages. Addition of IL-7 to me(v)/ me(v) bone marrow-seeded scid FTOC led to increased cell numbers, particularly of macrophages. Intrathymic injection of IL-7 partially restored the ability of progenitor cells in me(v)/ me(v) bone marrow to populate the thymus of adoptive recipients. We conclude that abnormal T cell development in me(v)/ me(v) mice may in part be due to defects in the ability of bone marrow-derived accessory cells to provide bioavailable IL-7 to developing thymocytes.     

Effects of peroxisome proliferators on the thymus and spleen of mice

The effects of peroxisome proliferators on the immune system of male C57B1/6 mice have been investigated. Significant atrophy of the thymus and spleen was observed in animals treated with potent peroxisome proliferators (e.g. perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP), Wy-14643 and nafenopin), whereas the effects of a moderate peroxisome proliferator (i.e. acetylsalicylic acid (ASA)) were relatively weak. The time course of thymic and splenic atrophy caused by PFOA was found to resemble the time course of the increase in liver weight and of peroxisome proliferation. Analysis of the numbers and phenotypes of thymocytes and splenocytes from PFOA-treated mice revealed the following: (i) the numbers of thymocytes and splenocytes were decreased > 90% and about 50%, respectively, by PFOA treatment; (ii) although all populations of thymocytes were decreased, the immature CD4+CD8+ population was decreased most dramatically; (iii) the numbers of both T and B cells in the spleen were decreased by PFOA treatment. Analysis of the cell cycle of thymocytes indicated that the thymic atrophy caused by PFOA in mice results, at least in part, from inhibition of thymocyte proliferation. Interestingly, in vitro exposure to PFOA for up to 24 h did not produce analogous effects in either thymocytes or splenocytes. Thus, the thymic and splenic atrophy caused by PFOA appears to involve an indirect pathway.     

TLR在小鼠胸腺中的表达及其在胸腺细胞发育中的可能作用

检测体外培养和体内发育过程中,胎鼠胸腺处于不同发育阶段时Toll样受体(TLR)的表达,阐明TLR表达量与胸腺细胞发育相关性,为TLR和胸腺细胞发育分化相关研究提供基础数据。无菌取15d胎龄胎鼠胸腺进行体外培养(FTOC),在培养不同时间点(2d,4d,6d),检测处于不同发育期胸腺TLR的表达;同时在孕期不同天数(15~19d),分别取胎鼠胸腺,检测在体内发育过程中胸腺TLR的表达;在FTOC中加入二脱氧鸟苷培养6d以制备胸腺基质细胞,检测基质细胞与胸腺细胞TLR表达情况。结果:小鼠胸腺中检测到多种TLR。FTOC培养中:培养第2天(F2)开始检测到各种TLR,到培养第6天(F6),TLR1,TLR3,TLR6,TLR7,TLR8明显上调,而TLR4,TLR5保持低水平,TLR4在培养第6天又下降;体内发育过程中:TLR6表达量随胎龄增加有较明显上调,TLR1,TLR3-8保持低水平表达;TLR2,TLR9体内体外都未检测到明显表达。在对胸腺细胞与基质细胞TLR表达比较中发现TLR1,TLR5,TLR6,TLR7高表达于胸腺细胞。胎鼠胸腺表达某些TLR,并且在发育不同阶段表达量有所改变,提示TLR可能参与胸腺细胞的发育过程。     

小牛胸腺激肽在体外对小鼠胸腺细胞表面花生凝集素受体的影响

本文报道用异硫氰酸荧光素标记的花生凝集素(FTTC-PNA)来测定经小牛胸腺激肽诱导后小鼠胸腺细胞表面PNA受体的变化。小牛胸腺激肽与胸腺细胞在完全RPMI-1640培养液中,置37℃温育20小时,随后洗涤细胞两次,加FITC-PNA,置0～4℃保温2小时,再洗涤以除去未结合的FITC-PNA,用半乳糖与胸腺细胞上的FITC-PNA结合并使之洗脱下来,最后用MPF-4荧光分光光度计测定荧光度,以表示结合在细胞PNA受体上FITC-PNA的量,从而反映PNA受体的变化情况。我们研究了胸腺激肽与胸腺细胞的温育时间、不同剂量及酸、碱、热和酶处理后的胸腺激肽对PNA受体的影响。且比较了小牛脾、肾制剂和胸腺激肽的生物活性。实验结果得出经胸腺激肽温育后的胸腺细胞,其表面FITC-PNA的结合量要比对照组降低16～19％。     

EBI2 contributes to the induction of thymic central tolerance in mice by promoting rapid motility of medullary thymocytes

Maturing thymocytes enter the thymic medulla, where they encounter numerous self‐antigens presented by antigen presenting cells (APCs). Those thymocytes that are strongly self‐reactive undergo either negative selection or diversion into the regulatory T‐cell lineage. Although the majority of the proteome is expressed in the medulla, many self‐antigens are expressed by only a minor fraction of medullary APCs; thus, thymocytes must efficiently enter the medulla and scan APCs to ensure central tolerance. Chemokine receptors promote lymphocyte migration, organization within tissues, and interactions with APCs in lymphoid organs. The chemokine receptor EBI2 governs localization of T cells, B cells, and dendritic cells (DCs) during immune responses in secondary lymphoid organs. However, the role of EBI2 in thymocyte development has not been elucidated. Here, we demonstrate that EBI2 is expressed by murine CD4⁺ single positive (CD4SP) thymocytes and thymic DCs. EBI2 deficiency alters the TCR repertoire, but does not grossly impact thymocyte cellularity or subset distribution. EBI2 deficiency also impairs negative selection of OT‐II TCR transgenic thymocytes responding to an endogenous self‐antigen. Two‐photon imaging revealed that EBI2 deficiency results in reduced migration and impaired medullary accumulation of CD4SP thymocytes. These data identify a role for EBI2 in promoting efficient thymic central tolerance.     

The tachykinins neurokinin A and physalaemin stimulate murine thymocyte proliferation

The tachykinins constitute a family of neuropeptides that are released from sensory neurons, mediating a variety of responses termed neurogenic inflammation. The present study investigates the possibility that tachykinins are also involved in immune-regulatory mechanisms. The mammalian tachykinins neurokinin A (NKA), neurokinin B, neuropeptide K and substance P, as well as the nonmammalian tachykinin physalaemin (PHY) and eledoisin, were analysed in 10-pM to 1.0 microM concentrations for regulatory influences in several lymphocyte proliferation assays. NKA, and to a lesser extent PHY, but none of the other tachykinins tested, displayed a stimulatory action in murine thymocyte cultures, utilised as an interleukin-1 (IL-1) bioassay. The effect was apparent only at a concentration of 0.1 microM or higher. No further stimulatory effect of the tachykinins could be observed in thymocyte cultures already suboptimally stimulated to proliferation by addition of IL-1. The tachykinins had no effect in direct and co-mitogenic T and B lymphocyte proliferation assays with rat spleen cells, in a thymocyte growth peptide assay with mouse thymic lymphoblasts or in an interleukin-2 (IL-2) bioassay with IL-2-dependent rat splenoblasts. Our findings indicate that NKA and PHY can act as immune regulators. The results are relevant for the understanding of the interaction between the nervous and the immune system, and are of particular interest in view of the inflammatory actions of both tachykinins and IL-1.     

3, 3', 4, 4'-Tetrachlorobiphenyl Inhibits Proliferation of Immature Thymocytes in Fetal Thymus Organ Culture

The environmental pollutant 3, 3', 4, 4'-tetrachlorobiphenyl (TCB) leads to thymic atrophy and immuno-suppression, the former possibly causing the latter. TCB binds lo the cytosolic aryl-hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and transforms it into a DNA-binding state. The development of fetal thymocyles is severely affected by TCB and other AhR-binding xenobiotics, leading to a skewed pattern of thymocyte maturation stages. Murine thymocyte proliferation after exposure to TCB was studied in fetal thymus organ culture (FTOC). C57BL/6 fetus thymic lobes from day 15 of gestation were explanted and grown for 2, 4, 6. and 8 days in organ culture in the presence or absence of 3.3 μM TCB. Subsets of thymocytes were defined by CD4 and CD8 surface markers, and their cell cycle was analysed by DNA staining with 7-amino-actinomycin D (7-AAD). Exposure of fetal thymi in vitro to 3.3 μM TCB significantly reduced the total number of thymocytes. and fewer thymocytes were in S/G₂M phase. The inhibition of cell proliferation induced by TCB treatment affected mainly the CD4⁻ CD8⁻ (double-negative, DN) and CD4⁻ CD8⁺ (single-positive, SP) subsets, and these inhibition appeared mainly in more immature thymocytes, i. e. DNCD3⁻ and CD8⁺CD3⁻ subpopulations, whereas no effect of TCB on CD4⁺CD8⁺ (double-positive, DP) cell proliferative activity was observed. Analysis of the relation of cell proliferation and development of subsets in differentiating fetal ihymocytes suggests that TCB enhanced thymocyte differentiation into mature CD8⁺ cells.     

Expression of cytokines and their receptors by human thymocytes and thymic stromal cells.

The repertoire of cytokine and cytokine receptor mRNA expressed by unstimulated human thymocytes and thymic stromal cells was explored by a quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using sequence specific internal standards. Of the 18 cytokines tested we found a considerable overlap in the expression of cytokines by human thymocytes and by thymic stromal cells; both cell types express the mRNA for interleukin-1 beta(IL-1, IL-6, IL-7 and tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha). However, there are substantial differences in the levels of cytokine mRNA expressed in these two types of cells as revealed by the quantitative PCR assay. Stromal cells express considerably higher levels of IL-1 beta and IL-6 than thymocytes (14- and 27-fold respectively). In addition, a number of cytokines such as lymphotoxin and interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), are expressed exclusively in thymocytes whereas others such as stem cell factor (SCF), IL-1 receptor antagonist-2 (IRAP-2) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) are produced only in stromal cells. There is a complete overlap in the expression of a group of cytokine receptors tested in thymocytes and thymic stromal cells; these include IL-1R, IL-2R, IL-6R, IL-7R, TNFR and stem cell growth factor receptor (c-KIT). The expression of specific cytokines by thymic stromal cells and the parallel expression of their receptors on thymocytes under physiological conditions, support the hypothesis that these cytokines participate in paracrine interactions between these two cell populations during thymocyte differentiation.     

The ubiquitin-proteasome pathway in thymocyte apoptosis: caspase-dependent processing of the deubiquitinating enzyme USP7 (HAUSP)

Programmed cell death (apoptosis) is crucial for thymocyte development. We analyzed the role of the ubiquitin (Ub)-proteasome pathway in dexamethasone-triggered and TCR-mediated apoptosis in fetal thymic organ culture (FTOC). Proteasome activity was increased in apoptotic thymocytes, as visualized by active-site labeling of proteasomal beta subunits. The activity of deubiquitinating enzymes in murine apoptotic thymocytes was likewise examined by active-site labeling. We show that the deubiquitinating enzyme USP7 (HAUSP) is proteolytically processed upon dexamethasone-, gamma-irradiation-, and antigen-induced cell death. Such processing of HAUSP does not occur in caspase 3-/- thymocytes, or upon pretreatment of wild type thymocytes with the general caspase inhibitor ZVAD-fmk. Thus, our results suggest that thymocyte apoptosis leads to modification of deubiquitinating enzymes by caspase activity and may provide an additional link between the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and the caspase cascade during programmed cell death.     

Combined TCRG and TCRA TREC analysis reveals increased peripheral T-lymphocyte but constant intra-thymic proliferative history upon ageing

T-cell receptor (TCR) repertoire diversity, thymic output, clonal size and peripheral T-lymphocyte numbers largely depend on intra-thymic and post-thymic T-lymphocyte proliferation. However, quantitative insight into thymocyte and T-lymphocyte proliferation is still lacking. We developed a new TCRG-based TCR excision circle (TREC) assay, the Vγ-Jγ TREC assay, which we used together with an adjusted δREC-ψJα TREC assay to quantify the proliferative history of human thymocyte and T-lymphocyte subpopulations from children and adults. This revealed that thymocytes undergo ～6–8 intra-thymic cell divisions from the double negative (DN) 3 developmental stage onwards, which appeared independent of age. Thus thymocyte proliferation after the DN3 developmental stages is stable and therefore not contributing to the reduced thymic output upon ageing. Cord blood naive T lymphocytes had already undergone ～2–3 post-thymic cell divisions, which increased to ～6–7 cell divisions in naive T lymphocytes of middle-aged adults, indicating the importance of homeostatic naive T-lymphocyte proliferation from a young age onwards in the maintenance of peripheral T-lymphocyte numbers. In conclusion, our data provide quantitative insight into the proliferative history of thymocyte and T-lymphocyte subpopulations and alterations herein upon ageing. This novel TREC assay approach could prove valuable in immune status monitoring in a variety of conditions.     

Different role of Apaf-1 in positive selection,negative selection and death by neglect in foetal thymic organ culture

Apoptotic protease-activating factor 1 (Apaf-1) is a component of the apoptosome which is required for the activation of procaspase-9. As Apaf-1 knockout (KO) (Apaf-1-/-) mice die before birth, the role of Apaf-1 during thymic selection was investigated using 5 day foetal thymic organ culture (FTOC) of thymi obtained at gestational day 15. There was a lower ratio of CD4 single-positive (SP) to CD8 SP cells and decreased apoptosis of CD4+CD8+ (DP) thymocytes from Apaf-1-/- mice compared with wild-type. To determine if these defects resulted in increased production of neglected thymocytes, the Apaf-1-/- mice were crossed with the T-cell receptor (TCR)-alpha-chain KO mice. There was no difference in thymocyte development in the thymi of TCR-alpha-/-Apaf-1-/- and TCR-alpha-/-Apaf-1+/+ mice 5 days after FTOC. To determine if Apaf-1 is involved in apoptosis during death by negative or positive selection, FTOC of the thymus of Apaf-1-/- Db/HY TCR-alphabeta transgenic (Tg) mice was carried out. There was decreased apoptosis of the HY clonal-specific M33+ thymocytes and an increased percentage of the autoreactive CD8+M33+ thymocytes in male, but not female Apaf-1-/- Db/HY TCR Tg mice. Our data suggest that Apaf-1 is not involved in positive selection or death by neglect, but may have a partial role in negative selection during early thymic T-cell development.     

Protein phosphatase subunit G5PR that regulates the JNK-mediated apoptosis signal is essential for the survival of CD4 and CD8 double-positive thymocytes

Early T lineage cells are selected in the thymus by the specific recognition of peptide components presented by MHC molecules on the surface of thymic epithelial cells and dendritic cells. As a potential regulator of the apoptotic and survival signals, the protein phosphatase 2A-component G5PR regulates Bim phosphorylation in B-cells. Here, we studied whether G5PR is involved in the regulation of the similar apoptotic pathway for cell survival during the selection of thymocytes. T-cell-specific G5PR knockout (G5pr(-/-)) mice displayed thymic atrophy, significant reduction in thymocyte numbers, particularly a 10-fold decrease in the number of CD4 and CD8 double-positive (DP) thymocytes and few mature single-positive (SP) cells. G5pr(-/-) thymocytes exhibited normal potential of proliferation and differentiation during the transition from double-negative (DN) to DP stage, but significantly increased susceptibility to apoptosis at the DP stage. G5PR deficiency did not affect on Bim activation in thymocytes, but caused hyper-activation of JNK and Caspase-3 with augmented Fas ligand (FasL) expression, indicating that G5PR regulates the thymocyte unique apoptotic signal involved in JNK-mediated Caspase-3 activation but not in Bim activation. G5PR is essential for the survival of DP cells during thymocyte development.     

Role of extracellular matrix-mediated interactions in thymocyte migration

Cell adhesion, migration, differentiation and survival or death is amongst a large spectrum of biological responses that can be elicited by ligation of extracellular matrix components to their corresponding receptors. As regards the physiology of the thymus, cell migration is a crucial event in the general process of T cell differentiation. Studies on the intrathymic distribution of ECM components revealed that fibronectin, laminin and type IV collagen, are not restrictedly located at typical basement membrane sites, also forming a thick network in the medullary region of the thymic lobules, whereas very thin ECM fibers are found within the cortex. These ECM components are essentially produced by thymic microenvironmental cells, which also drive thymocyte differentiation. Signals triggered by ECM are conveyed into thymocytes or microenvironmental cells through specific membrane receptors, and most of them belong to the integrin type, such as the VLA-3, VLA-4, VLA-5 and VLA-6. In vitro studies revealed that adhesion of thymocytes to thymic microenvironmental cells is mediated by extracellular matrix. Such an adhesion is preferentially done by immature thymocytes. Importantly, ECM-mediated interactions also govern the entrance and exit of thymocytes in the lymphoepithelial complexes named thymic nurse cells. Lastly, pathological conditions, including infectious and autoimmune diseases, in which changes of ECM ligands and receptors are observed, course with alterations in thymocyte migration and death. In conclusion, the fact that ECM can modulate traffic, differentiation, death and survival of normal thymocytes adds clues for understanding how ECM-mediated interactions behave in the thymus, not only in normal, but also in pathological conditions.