妊娠合并肺动脉高压的早期识别及管理

妊娠合并肺动脉高压(pulmonary hypertension)是一类严重危及母儿生命的妊娠合并症,目前任何原因引起的肺动脉高压均被列为妊娠禁忌证.孕产妇死亡多与肺动脉高压危象、右心衰竭、栓塞有关,对胎儿的影响主要包括胎死宫内、流产、早产、胎儿生长受限等.肺动脉高压妇女妊娠后,早期临床症状不典型,易与妊娠状态混淆,对...     

Second-trimester maternal serum marker screening: maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, beta-human chorionic gonadotropin, estriol, and their various combinations as predictors of pregnancy outcome.

OBJECTIVE: We evaluated the value of all 3 common biochemical serum markers, maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein, beta-human chorionic gonadotropin, and unconjugated estriol, and combinations thereof as predictors of pregnancy outcome. STUDY DESIGN: A total of 60,040 patients underwent maternal serum screening. All patients had maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein measurements; beta-human chorionic gonadotropin was measured in 45,565 patients, and 24,504 patients had determination of all 3 markers, including unconjugated estriol. The incidences of various pregnancy outcomes were evaluated according to the serum marker levels by using clinically applied cutoff points. RESULTS: In confirmation of previous observations, increased maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein levels (>2.5 multiples of the median) were found to be significantly associated with pregnancy-induced hypertension, miscarriage, preterm delivery, intrauterine growth restriction, intrauterine fetal death, oligohydramnios, and abruptio placentae. Increased beta-human chorionic gonadotropin levels (>2.5 multiples of the median [MoM]) were significantly associated with pregnancy-induced hypertension, miscarriage, preterm delivery, and intrauterine fetal death. Finally, decreased unconjugated estriol levels (<0.5 MoM) were found to be significantly associated with pregnancy-induced hypertension, miscarriage, intrauterine growth restriction, and intrauterine fetal death. As with increased second-trimester maternal serum alpha-fetoprotein levels, increased serum beta-human chorionic gonadotropin and low unconjugated estriol levels are significantly associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes. These are most likely attributed to placental dysfunction. CONCLUSION: Multiple-marker screening can be used not only for the detection of fetal anomalies and aneu-ploidy but also for detection of high-risk pregnancies.     

伴有母胎合并症及并发症妊娠的分娩时机

当继续妊娠伴随的母胎风险高于终止妊娠所带来的母婴风险时,就具有终止妊娠的指征,即分娩时机正合适。当母胎出现合并症和并发症时,大多数未能自然临产,临床中需要引产,因此,在决定引产前,确定最佳的分娩时机不仅是关乎围产结局的关键因素,也是产科精准医疗的临床再现。分娩时机不是一成不变的,也不是机械刻板的,遵循母婴安全为第一要务的宗旨,采取个体化医疗的原则,最适宜的才是最好的。文章从胎儿因素（胎儿生长受限、双胎妊娠）、母体及产科因素（妊娠期高血压疾病、妊娠合并糖尿病、胎膜早破、曾有不明原因的死胎或死产）、胎盘及子宫因素（前置胎盘、胎盘植入、瘢痕子宫、子宫破裂）三方面总结伴有母胎合并症及并发症妊娠的分娩时机。     

Drugs used in hypertensive diseases in pregnancy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: This review will summarize results derived from the most recent publications on the use of drugs in women with hypertensive diseases in pregnancy. RECENT FINDINGS: There is consensus that severe hypertension should be treated without delay to reduce maternal risks of acute cerebrovascular complications. There is no consensus that antihypertensive drugs improve maternal or fetal outcome in mild to moderate hypertension. Evidence exists that antihypertensive drugs may halve the risk of severe hypertension in pregnancy. No proof exists that antihypertensive drugs reduce perinatal mortality or development of preeclampsia, and such drugs have not been associated with improved fetal growth. Clinical trials indicate non-consistent data concerning antihypertensive treatment on antenatal rate of hospitalization, proteinuria at delivery and neonatal respiratory distress syndrome. Hydralazine has for many years been regarded as the first drug of choice for treatment of severe hypertension in pregnancy. Recent findings indicate that the calcium antagonist nifedipine might be a better alternative. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists should be discontinued due to fetotoxicity. The beta1-selective adrenoceptor blocker atenolol in the first trimester is associated with low birth weight. SUMMARY: Large randomized controlled trials are urgently needed to determine whether antihypertensive therapy in pregnancy results in greater benefit than risks for mother and fetus.     

Hyperhomocysteinemia, pregnancy complications, and the timing of investigation

OBJECTIVE: To assess associations between vitamin-dependent homocysteine metabolism and vascular-related pregnancy complications by considering interval between delivery and postpartum investigation and maternal age. METHODS: Case-control study performed at the University Medical Center Nijmegen in the Netherlands. Patients had experienced pregnancy-induced hypertension (n = 37), preeclampsia (n = 144), hemolysis, elevated liver enzymes, low platelets (HELLP) syndrome (n = 104), recurrent early pregnancy loss (n = 544), abruptio placentae (n = 135), intrauterine growth restriction (n = 144), or intrauterine fetal death (n = 104). Controls comprised 176 women with uncomplicated obstetric histories. Oral methionine loading tests and fasting vitamin profiles were performed more than 6 weeks after delivery. Odds ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated after logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Hyperhomocysteinemia was associated with an approximately 2-fold to 3-fold increased risk for pregnancy-induced hypertension, abruptio placentae, and intrauterine growth restriction. Cobalamin deficiency was associated with HELLP syndrome, abruptio placentae, intrauterine growth restriction, and intrauterine fetal death. Pyridoxal 5-phosphate deficiency increased the risk for pregnancy-induced hypertension 4-fold. These associations lost their significance after adjustment for time interval and maternal age. High red cell folate was associated with a decreased risk for abruptio placentae and intrauterine growth restriction. An increased creatinine concentration was associated with pregnancy-induced hypertension, preeclampsia, HELLP syndrome, and abruptio placentae. CONCLUSION: Hyperhomocysteinemia and vitamin deficiencies are largely determined by the interval between delivery and postpartum investigation and by maternal age. Time interval and maternal age should be considered in the risk estimation for vascular-related pregnancy complications.     

The myth of transient hypertension: descriptor or disease process?

The objective of this study is to describe the incidence of transient hypertension and to evaluate if transient hypertension is associated with increased maternal or fetal morbidity as compared to other hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and normotensive controls. Data were collected from all deliveries at the University of Mississippi Medical Center from July 1, 1996 through January 1, 1997. Patients were grouped according to ACOG criteria for pregnancy induced hypertension. Specific maternal and fetal morbidities were compared among the groups and controls. There were 1489 deliveries during the study period. Nearly 30% of patients met the criteria for transient hypertension. There were no significant differences between patients with transient hypertension and controls in regard to maternal and fetal outcomes. Transient hypertension occurs more often than expected, however, it appears to be of limited clinical significance.     

Diagnosis and management of gestational hypertension and preeclampsia

Gestational hypertension and preeclampsia are common disorders during pregnancy, with the majority of cases developing at or near term. The development of mild hypertension or preeclampsia at or near term is associated with minimal maternal and neonatal morbidities. In contrast, the onset of severe gestational hypertension and/or severe preeclampsia before 35 weeks' gestation is associated with significant maternal and perinatal complications. Women with diagnosed gestational hypertension-preeclampsia require close evaluation of maternal and fetal conditions for the duration of pregnancy, and those with severe disease should be managed in-hospital. The decision between delivery and expectant management depends on fetal gestational age, fetal status, and severity of maternal condition at time of evaluation. Expectant management is possible in a select group of women with severe preeclampsia before 32 weeks' gestation. Steroids are effective in reducing neonatal mortality and morbidity when administered to those with severe disease between 24 and 34 weeks' gestation. Magnesium sulfate should be used during labor and for at least 24 hours postpartum to prevent seizures in all women with severe disease. There is an urgent need to conduct randomized trials to determine the efficacy and safety of antihypertensive drugs in women with mild hypertension-preeclampsia. There is also a need to conduct a randomized trial to determine the benefits and risks of magnesium sulfate during labor and postpartum in women with mild preeclampsia.     

Osteogenesis Imperfecta Type V in a Mother and Baby Pair: First Case Report of Pregnancy and Delivery

BackgroundOsteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is a rare condition with limited data on fetal and maternal impact for almost all subtypes. OI type V is a very rare, autosomal dominant, inherited subtype of OI. The care of pregnant women with OI is managed by an interdisciplinary team, and fetal diagnosis is possible through amniocentesis, which may assist in delivery planning.CaseThis report is the first to describe a case of maternal and fetal OI type V. We detail maternal and fetal management during pregnancy and delivery planning. While no major complications occurred during pregnancy or delivery, the neonate developed multiple fractures in the first few months of life.ConclusionOur case shows favourable maternal and pregnancy outcomes with OI type V and emphasizes the importance of fetal diagnosis.     

First trimester sex hormone-binding globulin and subsequent development of preeclampsia or other adverse pregnancy outcomes.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate whether first trimester maternal serum sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) concentrations are altered in women who subsequently develop preeclampsia or other pregnancy complications. POPULATION: Women undergoing first trimester combined ultrasound and biochemical screening for chromosomal anomalies. We searched the database and identified 32 pregnancies resulting in miscarriage, 64 pregnancies with preexisting or gestational diabetes mellitus, 107 with fetal growth restriction, 103 with preeclampsia, 64 with pregnancy-induced hypertension, and 26 with spontaneous preterm delivery. We also selected 400 controls from among the population of pregnancies that had a delivery of a normal baby with no pregnancy complications. METHODS: Maternal serum SHBG concentrations were measured retrospectively using a competitive chemiluminescent immunoassay. The levels between those with normal outcome and those resulting in adverse outcome were compared. RESULTS: The median maternal serum SHBG concentration was not significantly different from controls, in those that subsequently developed preeclampsia (median MoM 1.05), non-proteinuric hypertension (median MoM 0.94) or preterm delivery (median MoM 1.15). The levels were significantly lower in those with diabetes (median MoM, 0.81 p=0.0005) and those pregnancies resulting in miscarriage (median MoM 0.80, p=0.008). CONCLUSION: First trimester maternal serum SHBG concentrations are no different from controls in women who subsequently develop preeclampsia, pregnancy-induced hypertension, fetal growth restriction, or preterm delivery. Levels are reduced in those who subsequently miscarry or in those presenting with diabetes.     

Placental abruption

Placental abruption complicates about 1% of pregnancies and is a leading cause of vaginal bleeding in the latter half of pregnancy. It is also an important cause of perinatal mortality and morbidity. The maternal effect of abruption depends primarily on its severity, whereas its effect on the fetus is determined both by its severity and the gestational age at which it occurs. Risk factors for abruption include prior abruption, smoking, trauma, cocaine use, multifetal gestation, hypertension, preeclampsia, thrombophilias, advanced maternal age, preterm premature rupture of the membranes, intrauterine infections, and hydramnios. Abruption involving more than 50% of the placenta is frequently associated with fetal death. The diagnosis of abruption is a clinical one, and ultrasonography and the Kleihauer-Betke test are of limited value. The management of abruption should be individualized on a case-by-case basis depending on the severity of the abruption and the gestational age at which it occurs. In cases where fetal demise has occurred, vaginal delivery is preferable. Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy should be managed aggressively. When abruption occurs at or near term and maternal and fetal status are reassuring, conservative management with the goal of vaginal delivery may be reasonable. However, in the presence of fetal or maternal compromise, prompt delivery by cesarean is often indicated. Similarly, abruption at extremely preterm gestations may be managed conservatively in selected stable cases, with close monitoring and rapid delivery should deterioration occur. Most cases of placental abruption cannot be predicted or prevented. However, in some cases, maternal and infant outcomes can be optimized through attention to the risks and benefits of conservative management, ongoing evaluation of fetal and maternal well-being, and through expeditious delivery where appropriate.     

Recent Insights into the pathogenesis of pre-eclampsia

Pre-eclampsia is more than pregnancy induced hypertension. The emerging view described in this presentation is that pre-eclampsia is secondary to the interactions of reduced placental perfusion with diverse maternal factors that alter endothelial function. The maternal contribution is from factors that antedate pregnancy and are influenced by the usual metabolic adaptations of pregnancy. The endothelium and other targets for the effects of these interactions are more sensitive to insults during pregnancy because of activation of the inflammatory cascade as a normal part of pregnancy. At least part of the response to reduced placental perfusion may be a fetal adaptive response to attempt to overcome the reduced delivery of nutrients. A reasonable convergence point for the interaction is at the level of oxidative stress. This hypothesis has both encouraging and discouraging corollaries. The diversity of maternal factors argues that there will be no single gene to explain the disorder and no single 'magic bullet' to treat the disorder. However, it is encouraging that the recognition of maternal predisposition to the disorder directs therapy to prevent pre-eclampsia at a specific target in subsets of women. Finally, the suggestion that some of the maternal alterations are due to fetal adaptive responses encourages careful choices of agents and meticulous infant follow up in well planned clinical trials.     

Successful pregnancy outcome with cardiac and severe restrictive lung disease requiring mechanical ventilation: a case report and literature review

The prognosis for pulmonary hypertension as a single entity is poor, but when it is superimposed on the physiological changes of pregnancy, it produces a lethal condition, with maternal mortality rates greater than 50%. We present a successfully managed case followed by a review and discussion of the available literature on this subject. A 24-year-old woman, a primigravida, was mechanically ventilated for severe restrictive lung disease. Her pregnancy required close surveillance of her labile cardiopulmonary status as well as fetal well-being. Her delivery was scheduled for induction at 34 weeks' gestation, but she required an emergency Cesarean section, which was productive of a healthy infant. Her recovery was complicated by recurrent fever. There is limited literature on restrictive lung disease and pulmonary hypertension with regards to their management during pregnancy. Nevertheless, successful pregnancy outcomes may result with careful multidisciplinary management.     

Successful pregnancy outcome with cardiac and severe restrictive lung disease requiring mechanical ventilation: a case report and literature review

The prognosis for pulmonary hypertension as a single entity is poor, but when it is superimposed on the physiological changes of pregnancy, it produces a lethal condition, with maternal mortality rates greater than 50%. We present a successfully managed case followed by a review and discussion of the available literature on this subject. A 24-year-old woman, a primigravida, was mechanically ventilated for severe restrictive lung disease. Her pregnancy required close surveillance of her labile cardiopulmonary status as well as fetal well-being. Her delivery was scheduled for induction at 34 weeks' gestation, but she required an emergency Cesarean section, which was productive of a healthy infant. Her recovery was complicated by recurrent fever. There is limited literature on restrictive lung disease and pulmonary hypertension with regards to their management during pregnancy. Nevertheless, successful pregnancy outcomes may result with careful multidisciplinary management.     

Expanded toxemia syndrome or gestosis

The expanded toxemia syndrome or gestosis refers to polysymptomatic diseases that are associated with pregnancy. This report discusses those cases without initial hypertension or proteinuria that were "cured" by delivery and were associated with maternal and fetal morbidity (usually intrauterine growth retardation). A list of suggested tests is presented to document gestosis in pregnant women with medical illnesses. Unlike preeclampsia, gestosis may occur at almost any time in pregnancy.     

Intrapartum management of twin gestation

The intrapartum management of the patient with a multiple gestation should begin in the antenatal period. With the present widespread use of ultrasound, the number of multiple gestations diagnosed early in pregnancy has now increased, permitting determination of placentation and monitoring of fetal growth. When a patient with a twin gestation presents in labor, ultrasound should be used to establish fetal presentation and size. The fetal well-being should be evaluated with fetal heart monitoring, and assessment of potential maternal complications, such as anemia, hypertension, and polyhydramnios, should be accomplished. With more than two fetuses, cesarean delivery is recommended. The principal controversy in intrapartum management of twin gestation relates to the planned route of delivery, particularly because this consideration is influenced by malpresentation and prematurity. There is general agreement favoring vaginal delivery for vertex-vertex twin pairs. With dual fetal heart rate monitoring and appropriate delivery room preparation for emergency cesarean section, recent evidence supports planned vaginal delivery of the mature nonvertex second twin. Elective cesarean section for the nonvertex second twin estimated as weighing less than 1800 gm is advised.     

非妊娠糖尿病巨大胎儿影响因素的病例对照研究

目的　探讨非妊娠糖尿病性巨大胎儿发生的危险因素。方法　对 5 3例非妊娠糖尿病巨大胎儿和 1 76例对照组进行各项相关因素分析。结果　单因素分析表明孕妇的孕前体重、孕前BMI、孕期增重、孕晚期体重、孕中期糖筛值、孕中晚期进食主食情况、分娩孕周、分娩方式、母血胰岛素、脐血血糖和胰岛素与巨大胎儿发生显著相关。经多因素分析后 ,孕前体重、孕中晚期进食主食情况、分娩孕周、分娩方式、脐血胰岛素与巨大胎儿发生仍有显著相关性。结论　巨大胎儿是遗传和环境多方面因素共同作用的结果 ,孕前高体重、孕期营养过剩和孕龄延长是巨大胎儿的高危因素 ,应针对具体情况采取综合措施积极预防。胰岛素在胎儿宫内发育中起重要的作用     

Preeclampsia Due to Fetal Non-immune Hydrops: Mirror Syndrome and Review of Literature

Objective.?Mirror syndrome (Ballantyne's syndrome) refers to the association of fetal hydrops and maternal preeclampsia. The aim of this study was to determine the relation and incidence between fetal hydrops and preeclampsia in our clinic.?Methods.?A retrospective review of patients associated with fetal hydrops and findings with preeclampsia was used. Seventy-five cases with single pregnancy and diagnoses with nonimmune hydrops fetalis were found. According to the data 4 cases were found related with preeclampsia.?Results.?Mirror syndrome is rarely encountered and underdiagnosed. We found a frequency of 5.3% (4 cases in 75 affected pregnancies) for single non-immune hydrops cases in which maternal hypertension occurred. Fetal outcome is depending on etiology and prognosis is mainly very low. Maternal symptoms and laboratory findings are resolving after intrauterine fetal death or delivery. Conclusion. Hydrops fetalis must be considered as a potential risk factor for preeclampsia. It is important that this clinical condition has a potential of about 5% for proceeding preeclampsia.     

Antihypertensive drugs in pregnancy

When mean arterial pressure exceeds 140 mmHg (equivalent to 180/120), there is a significant risk of maternal cerebral vascular damage. Therefore it is recommended that blood pressures greater than 170/110 should be treated with urgency, aiming to maintain the blood pressure at all times at less than 170/110 but not lower than 130/90. Parenteral hydralazine is effective and safe therapy. Labetalol (intravenously or orally) appears to be as effective and as safe, and causes fewer troublesome side effects; however, clinical experience of its use is more limited, particularly in relation to its safety for the fetus and neonate. Delivery of the fetus is usually the definitive management of severe hypertension in pregnancy. However, this action may not reduce the blood pressure immediately. After initial treatment with rapid-acting agents, it is often advantageous to maintain control of arterial pressure with ongoing oral therapy (methyldopa, labetalol). In addition to the protective effect on the mother, such therapy may allow delivery of the fetus to be deferred; this should be considered only if the fetus is significantly premature (e.g., less than 34 weeks), there is no other evidence of maternal or fetal distress, and there can be meticulous monitoring of the maternal and fetal state proceeding to prompt delivery if deterioration occurs. The indications for treatment of mild or moderate hypertension in pregnancy are less clear. Severe hypertensive episodes can be reduced by several drugs (methyldopa, labetalol, beta-blockers). Methyldopa appears to reduce the small risk of mid-trimester abortions seen in association with early hypertension. Other benefits may be possible with other individual drugs; however, none of these have been found consistently in controlled studies to date. There seems, therefore, to be no definite indication for treatment of mild hypertension in pregnancy; treatment of moderate hypertension may be reasonable but its value is unproved at present. Antihypertensive drugs are valuable in pregnancy to reduce the risks directly due to elevated blood pressure. These drugs are not expected to affect the evolution of preeclampsia nor to treat the other complications of this condition.     

First trimester maternal serum free human chorionic gonadotropin as a predictor of adverse pregnancy outcome

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to evaluate whether abnormal levels of first trimester maternal serum free human chorionic gonadotropin (beta-hCG) are predictive of adverse pregnancy outcomes. METHODS: The study included 1,622 consecutive patients with singleton pregnancies who underwent first trimester Down syndrome screening using nuchal translucency, and maternal serum free beta-hCG and pregnancy-associated plasma protein-A. Patients with fetal anomalies or chromosome aberrations were excluded from the study. The incidences of various adverse pregnancy outcomes were evaluated according to maternal serum free beta-hCG levels. Outcome variables included spontaneous miscarriage, proteinuric and non-proteinuric pregnancy-induced hypertension, fetal growth restriction, intrauterine fetal demise, spontaneous preterm delivery, oligohydramnios and placental abruption. RESULTS: No significant differences were noted between groups for any of the demographic variables. The only statistically significant result was an increase in the relative risk for spontaneous miscarriage (RR = 6.33) at free beta-hCG <0.2 multiples of the medians. No other statistically significant result was noted for the other adverse outcomes or for the overall complication rate. CONCLUSION: Low free beta-hCG is associated with a higher incidence of spontaneous miscarriage but is a poor predictor of other pregnancy complications.