Anticipatory Socialization for Retirement: A Multilevel Dyadic Model

Role theory, widely used to examine human behavior, has often been used to describe the transition from work to retirement. Anticipatory socialization, a role theory concept, describes the process that occurs prior to role transitions and assists in that transition by helping individuals learn the norms for the new role. However, not all workers engage in retirement planning. Lack of retirement planning is of concern because those individuals who do not plan for major life transitions tend to be less successful in adjusting to role changes. Data from the Health and Retirement Study were used; selection criteria required participants to be age 45 or older, working full- or part-time, and have complete data for the study variables. Multilevel modeling results of dyadic data from the Health and Retirement Study (N?=?1,028 dual-earner couples) indicate that older age, being White, higher income, greater retirement wealth, and looking forward to retirement predicted greater anticipatory socialization (i.e., thinking about and discussing retirement) by both husbands and wives. For wives only, having a health problem limiting work, higher spouse occupational status, and having a spouse who was looking forward to retirement predicted more anticipatory socialization. For husbands only, higher education, higher depressive symptomatology, and lower occupational status predicted more anticipatory socialization. This study found evidence of spousal congruence, with husbands, on average, engaging in more anticipatory socialization than wives. These findings identify couples that could most benefit from targeted efforts to increase anticipatory socialization, which predicts better retirement adjustment and satisfaction.     

Retirement intentions and spousal support: a multi-actor approach

OBJECTIVES: This study investigates the role of the partner in the retirement decision-making process. It determines the extent to which the support and intentions of partners regarding early retirement influence each other, and which partner dominates. METHODS: Data have been collected directly from 1,052 older employees working in Dutch industry and trade, and from their spouses. Because it is conceptualized that husbands' and wives' retirement intentions/support are related in a reciprocal way, a two-stage least squares regression analysis (2SLS) is used to establish the specified mutual relationships. RESULTS: Intentions and support of both partners concerning retirement are strongly related. The results of the 2SLS suggest that early retirement of one of the spouses is the result of influence processes within the household, and that early retirement can be considered, to a certain extent, a household decision. This holds for married men's early retirement in particular. There seems to be no direct causal relationship between a couple's own decision making with respect to early retirement and the retirement behavior of a couple's social network. DISCUSSION: Future research on the retirement decision-making process should focus on the family unit rather than simply on the individual worker, and be extended to different types of retirement behavior.     

Who expects to continue working after age 62? The retirement plans of couples

OBJECTIVES: This study examines the individual, spousal, and household characteristics associated with the retirement expectations of husbands and wives. METHODS: Using data from the 1992 Health and Retirement Study, subjective probabilities of working full-time after reaching age 62 and age 65 are used to measure retirement expectations. The retirement expectations of husbands and wives are modeled simultaneously using a joint-generalized least-squares approach. RESULTS: Within a marriage, retirement expectations are shaped by individual, spousal, and household characteristics. We observe some gender differences in cross-spousal influence with wives' retirement expectations being more influenced by husbands' resources and constraints than vice versa. Nonetheless, individual and household factors associated with retirement expectations are widely shared by husbands and wives. DISCUSSION: Husbands and wives both respond to individual and joint constraints and opportunities when planning for retirement. Findings support that there is considerable overlap in retirement planning of husbands and wives during early parts of the retirement decision-making process. However, inequity in cross-spousal influences is a defining characteristic of retirement decision making. Implications for both policy makers and practitioners are briefly discussed.     

Locus of control and retirement preparation

Locus of desired control and participation in a retirement preparation program were investigated in relation to retirement attitudes and adjustment. Fifty-nine older workers and retirees, approximately half of whom had participated in a retirement preparation program, completed measures assessing locus of control, attitudes toward work and retirement, life satisfaction and self-esteem. Retirement preparation was found to maintain both the desirability and expectancy of internal control and positive retirement attitudes among the worker participants relative to controls. Retirees did not differ on measures of adjustment; those with retirement preparation, however, evidenced higher externality than those without. Although the results indicated that internal expectancies were associated with positive psychological functioning, the role of retirement preparation in maintaining such expectancies into retirement remained equivocal.     

Involuntary retirement: the role of restrictive circumstances, timing, and social embeddedness

OBJECTIVES: This study examined perceptions of involuntary retirement. We investigated the extent to which differences in how retirement is perceived stem from differences in (a) restrictive circumstances, (b) the older worker's preferences for retirement, (c) timing, and (d) social embeddedness. METHODS: Using multiactor panel data from 778 Dutch older workers who experienced the transition into retirement, we estimated an ordered logistic model to explain perceptions of involuntary retirement. RESULTS: This study showed that the way in which a person experiences retirement from the labor force is not influenced solely by factors that diminish the older worker's amount of choice (health and organizational constraints) but also relates to the older worker's social environment (social timing and social network influences). DISCUSSION: The way he or she frames the retirement transition in social relationships within the family and at work affects the older worker's subjective experience of retirement.     

Predictors of perceptions of involuntary retirement

PURPOSE: Retirement is often treated as a voluntary transition, yet selected circumstances can restrict choice in retirement decision processes. We investigated conditions under which retirees perceive their retirement as "forced" rather than "wanted." METHODS: Analyses relied on Waves 1-4 of the Health and Retirement Survey (N=1,160; 572 men and 588 women). Logistic regression models estimated the effects of background factors, choice and restricted choice conditions, and retirement contexts on perceptions of forced retirement. RESULTS: Nearly one third of older workers perceived their retirement as forced. Such forced retirement reflects restricted choice through health limitations, job displacement, and care obligations. Other predictors include marital status, race, assets, benefits, job tenure, and off-time retirement. IMPLICATIONS: Future research should establish personal and policy implications of forced retirement. Programs are needed to help older workers forced into retirement find alternative employment opportunities and to reduce the conditions leading to forced retirement.     

Retirement expectations: gender differences and partner effects in an Australian employer‐funded sample

Objectives: The concept of retirement has been undergoing change, and opportunities for a variety of retirement lifestyle options are increasing. Retirement plans for one cohort are examined in this context. Method: Responses to a questionnaire of some 200 public‐sector employees attending a retirement seminar were analysed by gender. Results: Findings suggest that both men and women viewed retirement as a positive experience, focusing on opportunities for further personal development. This approach was more evident among women. However, both men and women would prefer to maintain a form of reduced employment after retiring. There were no gender differences in reasons for retiring at that time, but those with partners were more likely to retire because of family responsibilities. Conclusions: Implications for theories of ageing and public policy are discussed. A more flexible approach to retirement policy is urged. Retirement may provide more opportunities for personal growth than decline.     

Retirement transitions and spouse disability: effects on depressive symptoms

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of type of retirement (forced, early, abrupt) and spouse's disability on longitudinal change in depressive symptoms. METHODS: The analyses rely on Waves 1-4 of the Health and Retirement Survey (N = 2,649). Generalized estimating equations models with bootstrapped standard errors and adjustment for survey design and non-independence of dyad members estimate effects of retirement, type of retirement, and spouse's disability on depressive symptoms, controlling for relevant covariates. RESULTS: The results suggest that depressive symptoms increase when retirement is abrupt and perceived as too early or forced. Women retirees who stopped employment and were either forced into retirement or perceived their retirement as too early report significantly more depressive symptoms with increasing spouse activities of daily living (ADLs) limitations. There is no similar effect for men. In contrast, for working retirees who retired on time, depressive symptoms decrease with increasing spouse ADLs. DISCUSSION: These results highlight the importance of retirement context on postretirement well-being. They suggest that both type of retirement transition and marital contexts such as spouse's disability influence postretirement well-being, and these effects differ by gender.     

Incidence, timing, and events associated with poverty: a dynamic view of poverty in retirement

Using longitudinal data from the Retirement History Study (RHS), we traced the economic well-being of couples who were not poor just prior to retirement through up to 10 years of retirement. The vast majority of these couples did not become poor during their first years of retirement. However, the risk and pattern of poverty during retirement varied greatly across groups identified by marital status and pension status. Married couples with pension income who survived over the period of our analysis rarely fell into poverty. Even surviving couples without pension income were not very likely to face poverty. Our findings indicate, however, that the death of a husband dramatically alters the risk and pattern of poverty in retirement.     

Impact of self-assessed hearing loss on a spouse: a longitudinal analysis of couples

OBJECTIVES: Hearing loss is increasingly common among older persons and is negatively associated with health and well-being. Its impact on spouses, however, is poorly researched. This study analyzed the relationship between a spouse's self-assessed hearing loss and his or her partner's physical, psychological, and social well-being 5 years later. METHODS: Subjects were 418 older married couples from the Alameda County Study. Hearing loss and adjustment variables were assessed in 1994 and outcomes in 1999. Longitudinal analyses included multivariate statistical models using generalized estimating equations to adjust for paired data and partners' hearing loss, age, gender, chronic conditions, and financial problems. RESULTS: Spouse hearing loss increased the likelihood of subsequent poorer physical, psychological, and social well-being in partners. The negative impact of husbands' hearing loss on wives' well-being appears stronger than the reverse. DISCUSSION: Findings suggest that early diagnosis and treatment of hearing loss constitute important clinical strategies to enhance the well-being of both hearing-impaired individuals and their spouses and support policy change to cover hearing devices by insurance. Further research incorporating theoretical perspectives from communication theory and qualitative methodology would enhance understanding of how hearing loss impacts older couples and support refinement of interventions to promote quality of life.     

Locus of control and psychological distress among the aged

A relationship between locus of control and adjustment has been found in many studies of young adults, with externals generally reporting higher levels of psychological distress. However, studies of locus of control and adjustment in the aged have produced conflicting results. This investigation examined the relationship between locus of control and self-reported psychopathology in a sample of 139 residents of a retirement complex. Correlation coefficients were computed for locus of control and each of the nine symptom dimensions of the Brief Symptom Inventory. These analyses were carried out separately for males and for females to determine if locus of control orientation was associated with adjustment for both males and females. Results indicate that locus of control is correlated with self-reported psychopathology for older women but not for older men. These results and those of related investigations are discussed within the context of Rotter's social learning theory.     

The transition to retirement: stages and factors that influence retirement adjustment

A set of older workers from the Raleigh-Durham-Chapel Hill, North Carolina metropolitan area were followed from pre-retirement to 24 months post-retirement in order to explore stages in retirement and the impact of social psychological, social background, and gender factors on the retirement adjustment. First, we found general support for Atchley's model of retirement adjustment (1976). Second, the factors that influence retirement adjustment in the data analysis revealed that: 1) pre-retirement self-esteem and friend identity meanings, as well as pension eligibility, increased positive attitudes toward retirement at six months, 12 months, and 24 months post-retirement; 2) retirement planning and voluntary retirement increased positive attitudes toward retirement earlier, but not later, in the first two years of retirement; 3) poor health decreased positive attitudes toward retirement later rather than earlier in the first two years of retirement; and 4) there were only limited gender effects.     

Recently Retired Non-professional Men and Their Perceptions of Retirement

Objective: To provide insights for primary health workers into the nature of retirement for non-professional men, to assist the promotion of healthy ageing for men. Method: The qualitative methodology of phenomenology was utilised to explore the recent retirement experience of ten men that were salutogenic (health creating) in nature, especially in relation to their social health. Information was gained via self-reflective journals and in-depth interviews. Findings: Four major themes were revealed which positively impacted on the men's social health. Retirement was perceived as (a) an anticipated life stage; (b) a time of freedom; (c) a time of activity, especially as a practical support to others; and (d) a time to consolidate primary relationships. Conclusions: The study supports other Australian literature on retirement and gives insights from the perspective of recently retired non-professional men. It provides further information for those wishing to promote the social health of older men in the Australian context at both an individual and policy level.     

Self‐provision in retirement: Quantitative evidence on older Australians’ expectations and experiences

Objectives: To explore factors that correlate with expectations and experiences of self‐provision in retirement. Methods: A regression modelling approach is adopted using a national survey that contains data on the retirement expectations and experiences of older Australians. Results: Older Australians approaching retirement are more likely to expect to be self‐funded in retirement if they possess high qualification levels, stable employment and have healthy levels of wealth holdings. Divorced or separated older women are more likely to expect to be welfare‐reliant than other groups. The presence of children, disabilities and residence outside major cities do not affect prospective retirees’ expectations of being primarily self‐funded in retirement, but they do impact negatively on actual self‐provision in retirement. Forced retirement will significantly decrease the probability of self‐provision in retirement. Conclusions: Policy reforms that focus on increasing employment opportunities for women after child‐bearing and promoting retirement choice will reduce welfare reliance among older Australians.     

Regional retirement migration: the case of Cape Cod

Using microlevel data from the Cape Cod Retirement Migration Study, this study addressed two questions: Why are regional destinations attractive to older migrants? Are there any salient differences among regional retirement migrants? Cape Cod, Massachusetts, attracts regional migrants for primarily three reasons: it is a familiar place to most migrants; it is a proximate setting for a variety of amenities; and it is relatively near these migrants' communities of origin, allowing them to maintain ties to previous residences. We argue that a regional move allows migrants to preserve some degree of continuity in their lives that would be impossible had they moved across greater distances, and that the experiences of intrastate migrants illustrate this theme of continuity to a greater extent than those of interstate regional migrants. Our research provides strong evidence that the distance of the move is an important dimension of the migration process for older people and one that can be fruitfully studied on both the macro and micro levels of analysis.     

Retirement transitions, gender, and psychological well-being: a life-course, ecological model

This longitudinal study investigated the relationship between retirement transitions and subsequent psychological well-being using data on 458 married men and women (aged 50-72 years) who were either still in their primary career jobs, retired, or had just made the transition to retirement over the preceding 2 years. The findings show that the relationship between retirement and psychological well-being must be viewed in a temporal, life course context. Specifically, making the transition to retirement within the last 2 years is associated with higher levels of morale for men, whereas being "continuously" retired is related to greater depressive symptoms among men. The results suggest the importance of examining various resources and contexts surrounding retirement transitions (gender, prior level of psychological well-being, spouses' circumstance, and changes in personal control, marital quality, subjective health, and income adequacy) to understand the dynamics of the retirement transition and its relationship with psychological well-being.     

Why do boomers plan to work longer?

OBJECTIVE: . Recent changes in retirement trends and patterns have raised questions about the likely retirement behavior of baby boomers, the large cohort born between 1946 and 1964. This study examined recent changes in retirement expectations and the factors that drove them. METHODS: Using data from the Health and Retirement Study, the analysis compared self-reported probabilities of working full time past ages 62 and 65 among workers aged 51 to 56 in 1992 and 2004. The study modeled retirement expectations for both generations and used the estimated regression coefficients to identify the forces that accounted for generational differences. RESULTS: . Between 1992 and 2004, the mean self-reported probability of working full time past age 65 among workers aged 51 to 56 increased from 27% to 33%. Lower rates of retiree health insurance offers from employers, higher levels of educational attainment, and lower rates of defined benefit pension coverage accounted for most of the growth. DISCUSSION: Given the continued erosion in employer-sponsored retiree health benefits and defined benefit pension plans, boomers will likely remain at work longer than members of the previous generation. Lengthier careers will likely promote economic growth, increase government revenue, and improve individual financial security at older ages.     

Marital Functioning in Early Versus Late-Onset Alcoholic Couples

Current knowledge about alcohol and marital functioning is limited by restrictive sample selection, inattention to the literature on individual-based alcoholic subtypes, and lack of research linking individual differences among alcoholics to marital functioning. The present study was designed to study marital functioning of alcoholics in light of current alcohol typologies. Subjects were part of a larger study on conjoint treatment of alcoholic males and their female partners. Four typologies—including Type 1/2, In-Home/Out-of-home, SteadyIEpisodic, and EarlyILate Onset—were tested for replicability and discriminant validity before linking them to marital functioning. Discriminant validity was found only for the Early (59%)-versus Late (41 %)-Onset typology; thus, further analyses linked only this typology with marital functioning. At baseline, Early-Onset couples reported more marital instability, and the females in these couples were more distressed. During treatment, Early-Onset couples reported higher daily marital satisfaction than Late-Onset couples. Regardless of age of onset, males reported higher marital satisfaction than their spouses during treatment, but their satisfaction did not increase during treatment. Female partners' marital satisfaction increased during treatment. Female partners of Late-Onset males reported particularly low marital satisfaction during treatment. Parsing the sample according to the early-/late-onset typology yielded different predictors of marital satisfaction for males and females within each subtype. For female partners of Early-Onset alcoholics, psychological distress unrelated to her pattner's drinking severity was most associated with her own marital satisfaction, whereas marital adjustment of female partners of Late-Onset alcoholics was most associated with the male's level of perceptual accuracy regarding her needs. This pattern was reversed for the males; marital adjustment of Early-Onset alcoholics was most associated with his partner's perceptual accuracy of his needs, whereas marital functioning of Late-Onset alcoholics was best accounted for by his own psychological distress.     

Cohort analysis of retirement preparation, 1974-1981

Extending Easterlin's (1987) thesis regarding cohort size and personal welfare, this study was designed to examine cohort differences and changes in preparation for retirement. The data on which the study is based came from two cross-sectional surveys commissioned by the National Council on the Aging and conducted in 1974 and 1981. Major research questions included: (a) Which cohorts are most active in taking steps to prepare for retirement? and (b) Did Americans increase their retirement preparation activities during the time period studied? Results indicate that retirement preparation is influenced by cohort effects, especially among the more recent cohorts, and that earlier cohorts generally prepare more. Most respondents, especially the earlier cohorts, experienced a decrease in retirement preparation between 1974 and 1981 (i.e., a period effect). Analysis of the separate indicators of a retirement preparation index show that most activities, for instance, savings, decreased during this time while others either increased (will preparation) or remained stable (home ownership). The findings suggest that retirement preparation is influenced by economic climate and provide partial support for this application of Easterlin's thesis. Retirement preparation is also strongly related to education and race.     

Selected social and psychological differences between men and women in later life.

Older men and women (3630) were examined for sex differences in selected social and psychological characteristics. Compared to older men, older women were found to be as work-oriented and more likely to take a long time adjusting to retirement. Older women were more likely to report "negative" psychological symptoms, while older men were more likely to see changes in social participation. Implications of the findings for current theories are discussed.