The lower limb in people with diabetes. Position statement of the Australian Diabetes Society

Diabetic lower-limb problems result in significant social, medical and economic consequences and are the most common cause of hospitalisation for people with diabetes. In people with diabetes, amputations are 15 times more common than in people without diabetes, and 50% of all amputations occur in people with diabetes. Peripheral neuropathy, vascular disease, infection and deformity of the feet are the major predisposing factors leading to ulceration or amputation. All people with diabetes should receive basic footcare education, and regular foot examinations. The risk for the development of ulceration can be assessed by basic clinical examination of the foot. Management strategies depend on the risk category, and range from basic education and annual review to specialist care by a multidisciplinary team.     

Alcohol and cancer: a position statement from Cancer Council Australia

The Cancer Council Australia (CCA) Alcohol Working Group has prepared a position statement on alcohol use and cancer. The statement has been reviewed by external experts and endorsed by the CCA Board. Alcohol use is a cause of cancer. Any level of alcohol consumption increases the risk of developing an alcohol-related cancer; the level of risk increases in line with the level of consumption. It is estimated that 5070 cases of cancer (or 5% of all cancers) are attributable to long-term chronic use of alcohol each year in Australia. Together, smoking and alcohol have a synergistic effect on cancer risk, meaning the combined effects of use are significantly greater than the sum of individual risks. Alcohol use may contribute to weight (fat) gain, and greater body fatness is a convincing cause of cancers of the oesophagus, pancreas, bowel, endometrium, kidney and breast (in postmenopausal women). The existing evidence does not justify the promotion of alcohol use to prevent coronary heart disease, as the previously reported role of alcohol in reducing heart disease risk in light-to-moderate drinkers appears to have been overestimated. CCA recommends that to reduce their risk of cancer, people limit their consumption of alcohol, or better still avoid alcohol altogether. For individuals who choose to drink alcohol, CCA recommends that they drink only within the National Health and Medical Research Council guidelines for alcohol consumption.     

Metformin and intervention in polycystic ovary syndrome. Endocrine Society of Australia, the Australian Diabetes Society and the Australian Paediatric Endocrine Group.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is classically characterised by ovarian dysfunction (oligomenorrhoea, anovulation and infertility), androgen excess (hirsutism and acne), obesity, and morphological abnormalities of the ovaries (cystic enlargement and stromal expansion). More recently, insulin resistance has been found to be common in PCOS, along with an increased prevalence of other features of the "metabolic syndrome", namely glucose intolerance, type 2 diabetes mellitus, and hyperlipidaemia. Hyperinsulinaemia is likely to contribute to the disordered ovarian function and androgen excess of PCOS. Reducing insulin resistance by lifestyle modifications such as diet and exercise improves endocrine and menstrual function in PCOS. These lifestyle modifications are the best initial means of improving insulin resistance. Metformin, an oral hypoglycaemic agent that increases insulin sensitivity, has been shown to reduce serum concentrations of insulin and androgens, to reduce hirsutism, and to improve ovulation rates. The effect of metformin alone on fertility rates is unknown. Some studies suggest that metformin will reduce total body weight to a small extent, but with a predominant effect on visceral adipose reduction. The effects of metformin on lipid abnormalities, hypertension or premature vascular disease are unknown, but the relative safety, moderate cost, and efficacy in reducing insulin resistance suggest that metformin may prove to be of benefit in combating these components of the "metabolic" syndrome in PCOS. Further properly planned randomised controlled trials are required.     

Diabetes, psychotic disorders and antipsychotic therapy: a consensus statement

Psychotic illness and its treatment are associated with an increased rate of diabetes and worsening blood sugar control, Australia. The newer, second-generation antipsychotic agents are more likely to produce this effect than the first-generation agents, but both contribute to the problem. The effect is usually related to insulin resistance through weight gain, but other mechanisms may exist. Diabetic ketoacidosis is rare. Management of psychosis takes priority over concerns about the potential metabolic sequelae of treatment, but the prevalence of the latter requires that all patients taking antipsychotic agents be actively screened and treated. Patients treated with antipsychotic agents need baseline and regular checks, including weight, blood glucose and lipid levels and blood pressure. Management of psychosis with its attendant medical problems requires a multidisciplinary approach, with primary health practitioners playing a central role. Mortality and medical morbidity is higher in those with psychosis than expected; preventive measures, combined with early detection and treatment of hyperglycaemia and other metabolic problems, is a key public health issue.     

The Australasian Society of Clinical Immunology and Allergy position statement: Summary of allergy prevention in children

A family history of allergy and asthma identifies children at high risk of allergic disease. Dietary restrictions in pregnancy are not recommended. Avoiding inhalant allergens during pregnancy has not been shown to reduce allergic disease, and is not recommended. Breastfeeding should be recommended because of other beneficial effects, but if breast feeding is not possible, a hydrolysed formula is recommended (rather than conventional cow's milk formulas) in high-risk infants only. Maternal dietary restrictions during breastfeeding are not recommended. Soy formulas and other formulas (eg, goat's milk) are not recommended for reducing food allergy risk. Complementary foods (including normal cow's milk formulas) should be delayed until a child is aged at least 4-6 months, but a preventive effect from this measure has only been demonstrated in high-risk infants. There is no evidence that an elimination diet after age 4-6 months has a protective effect, although this needs additional investigation. Further research is needed to determine the relationship between house dust mite exposure at an early age and the development of sensitisation and disease; no recommendation can yet be made about avoidance measures for preventing allergic disease. No recommendations can be made about exposure to pets in early life and the development of allergic disease. If a family already has pets it is not necessary to remove them, unless the child develops evidence of pet allergy (as assessed by an allergy specialist). Women should be advised not to smoke while pregnant, and parents should be advised not to smoke. No recommendations can be made on the use of probiotic supplements (or other microbial agents) for preventing allergic disease at this time. Immunotherapy may be considered as a treatment option for children with allergic rhinitis, and may prevent the subsequent development of asthma.     

2019年美国《成年人糖尿病或糖尿病前期营养治疗共识报告》解读

2019年5月,Diabetes Care发布《成年人糖尿病或糖尿病前期营养治疗共识报告》。共识旨在为临床专家提供基于证据的个体化糖尿病及糖尿病前期成年人营养治疗指导。内容包含营养治疗的有效性、宏量营养素、膳食模式、能量平衡及体质量管理、甜味剂、乙醇等12个部分。本文对其中主要内容进行解读,与我国相关指南共识进行对比,并结合我国实际情况进行讨论。     

空腹手指末梢血糖在糖尿病及糖尿病前期筛查中的应用价值研究

背景　近年来我国糖尿病患病率居高不下,且有大量未诊断的糖尿病及糖尿病前期患者亟待发现。确定稳定、可靠的筛查方法有助于更加快速、有效地发现糖尿病及糖尿病前期患者。目的　评价空腹手指末梢血糖（FFG）在糖尿病高危人群筛查中对糖尿病及糖尿病前期的筛检效果。方法　2017年,根据上海市普陀区人口分布状况,在10个社区进行分层整群抽样调查。依据《中国2型糖尿病防治指南（2017年版）》中的标准制定《上海市社区居民风险评估表》,筛选糖尿病高危人群。糖尿病高危人群进一步行实验室检查,检测FFG、空腹静脉血糖（FVBG）并行口服葡萄糖耐量试验（OGTT）以筛检糖尿病及糖尿病前期人群。通过受试者工作特征（ROC）曲线、筛检试验效能表确定FFG筛检糖尿病及糖尿病前期人群的最佳截断值,并评价其应用效果。结果　共筛选糖尿病高危人群13 057例,剔除108例未做FVBG检测者,最终纳入12 949例,其中糖尿病及糖尿病前期3 182例（24.57%）：糖尿病1 380例（10.66%）,糖尿病前期1 802例（13.92%）。相关性分析结果显示,FFG与FVBG具有良好的相关性（rs=0.722,P<0.001）。FFG预测糖尿病及糖尿病前期的ROC曲线下面积为0.923 8。当FFG以5.7 mmol/L为筛检试验截断值时,约登指数最大（0.70）,筛检试验的灵敏度、特异度、阳性预测值、阴性预测值和Kappa值分别为88.62%、81.10%、60.44%、95.63%和0.83。男、女性分析结果与整体分析结果一致,FFG截断值均为5.7 mmol/L。不同年龄组分析结果与整体分析结果相近,FFG截断值为5.6~5.8 mmol/L。结论　FFG快速、准确、可靠、稳定,可以作为糖尿病筛查中的预检手段。推荐FFG筛检糖尿病及糖尿病前期的截断值为5.7 mmol/L,但可以根据筛检需求在一定范围内进行调节。     

Prevention of a first stroke: a review of guidelines and a multidisciplinary consensus statement from the National Stroke Association

Objective  To establish, in a single resource, up-to-date recommendations for primary care physicians regarding prevention strategies for a first stroke. Participants  Members of the National Stroke Association's (NSA's) Stroke Prevention Advisory Board and Cedars-Sinai Health System Department of Health Services Research convened on April 9, 1998, in an open meeting. The conference attendees, selected to participate by the NSA, were recognized experts in neurology (9), cardiology (2), family practice (1), nursing (1), physician assistant practices (1), and health services research (2). Evidence  A literature review was carried out by the Department of Health Services Research, Cedars-Sinai Health System, Los Angeles, Calif, using the MEDLINE database search for 1990 through April 1998 and updated in November 1998. English-language guidelines, statements, meta-analyses, and overviews on prevention of a first stroke were reviewed. Consensus Process  At the meeting, members of the advisory board identified 6 important stroke risk factors (hypertension, myocardial infarction [MI], atrial fibrillation, diabetes mellitus, blood lipids, asymptomatic carotid artery stenosis), and 4 lifestyle factors (cigarette smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, diet). Conclusions  Several interventions that modify well-documented and treatable cardiovascular and cerebrovascular risk factors can reduce the risk of a first stroke. Good evidence for direct stroke reduction exists for hypertension treatment; using warfarin for patients after MI who have atrial fibrillation, decreased left ventricular ejection fraction, or left ventricular thrombus; using 3-hydroxy-3 methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors for patients after MI; using warfarin for patients with atrial fibrillation and specific risk factors; and performing carotid endarterectomy for patients with stenosis of at least 60%. Observational studies support the role of modifying lifestyle-related risk factors (eg, smoking, alcohol use, physical activity, diet) in stroke prevention. Measures to help patients improve adherence are an important component of a stroke prevention plan.      

Chronic kidney disease and measurement of albuminuria or proteinuria: a position statement

The publication of the Australasian Creatinine Consensus Working Group's position statements in 2005 and 2007 resulted in automatic reporting of estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) with requests for serum creatinine concentration in adults, facilitated the unification of units of measurement for creatinine and eGFR, and promoted the standardisation of assays. New advancements and continuing debate led the Australasian Creatinine Consensus Working Group to reconvene in 2010. The working group recommends that the method of calculating eGFR should be changed to the Chronic Kidney Disease Epidemiology Collaboration (CKD-EPI) formula, and that all laboratories should report eGFR values as a precise figure to at least 90 mL/min/1.73 m(2). Age-related decision points for eGFR in adults are not recommended, as although an eGFR < 60 mL/min/1.73 m(2) is very common in older people, it is nevertheless predictive of significantly increased risks of adverse clinical outcomes, and should not be considered a normal part of ageing.If using eGFR for drug dosing, body size should be considered, in addition to referring to the approved product information. For drugs with a narrow therapeutic index, therapeutic drug monitoring or a valid marker of drug effect should be used to individualise dosing. The CKD-EPI formula has been validated as a tool to estimate GFR in some populations of non-European ancestry living in Western countries. Pending publication of validation studies, the working group also recommends that Australasian laboratories continue to automatically report eGFR in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples. The working group concluded that routine calculation of eGFR is not recommended in children and youth, or in pregnant women. Serum creatinine concentration (preferably using an enzymatic assay for paediatric patients) should remain as the standard test for kidney function in these populations.     

成都地区2型糖尿病患者一级亲属糖尿病及糖尿病前期患病率的流行病学调查

目的 了解成都地区2型糖尿病(T2DM)患者一级亲属(FDR)糖尿病、糖尿病前期[包括空腹血糖受损(IFG)及糖耐量减低(IGT)]的患病率的流行病学情况.方法 本研究为横断面研究,共纳入研究对象2306例,其中T2DM患者FDR 535例(FDR组)、无糖尿病家族史的对照者1771例(对照组),检测腰围、血压、血脂,...     

Vitamin D and health in adults in Australia and New Zealand: a position statement

The prevalence of vitamin D deficiency varies, with the groups at greatest risk including housebound, community-dwelling older and/or disabled people, those in residential care, dark-skinned people (particularly those modestly dressed), and other people who regularly avoid sun exposure or work indoors. Most adults are unlikely to obtain more than 5%-10% of their vitamin D requirement from dietary sources. The main source of vitamin D for people residing in Australia and New Zealand is exposure to sunlight. A serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) level of ≥ 50 nmol/L at the end of winter (10-20 nmol/L higher at the end of summer, to allow for seasonal decrease) is required for optimal musculoskeletal health. Although it is likely that higher serum 25-OHD levels play a role in the prevention of some disease states, there is insufficient evidence from randomised controlled trials to recommend higher targets. For moderately fair-skinned people, a walk with arms exposed for 6-7 minutes mid morning or mid afternoon in summer, and with as much bare skin exposed as feasible for 7-40 minutes (depending on latitude) at noon in winter, on most days, is likely to be helpful in maintaining adequate vitamin D levels in the body. When sun exposure is minimal, vitamin D intake from dietary sources and supplementation of at least 600 IU (15 μg) per day for people aged ≤ 70 years and 800 IU (20 μg) per day for those aged > 70 years is recommended. People in high-risk groups may require higher doses. There is good evidence that vitamin D plus calcium supplementation effectively reduces fractures and falls in older men and women.     

Vitamin D and adult bone health in Australia and New Zealand: a position statement

A significant number of Australians are deficient in vitamin D--it is a fallacy that Australians receive adequate vitamin D from casual exposure to sunlight. People at high risk of vitamin D deficiency include elderly people (particularly those in residential care), people with skin conditions where avoidance of sunlight is advised, those with dark skin (particularly if veiled), and those with malabsorption. Exposure of hands, face and arms to one-third of a minimal erythemal dose (MED) of sunlight (the amount that produces a faint redness of skin) most days is recommended for adequate endogenous vitamin D synthesis. However, deliberate sun exposure between 10:00 and 14:00 in summer (11:00-15:00 daylight saving time) is not advised. If this sun exposure is not possible, then a vitamin D supplement of at least 400 IU (10 microg) per day is recommended. In vitamin D deficiency, supplementation with 3000-5000 IU ergocalciferol per day (Ostelin [Boots]; 3-5 capsules per day) for 6-12 weeks is recommended. Larger-dose preparations of ergocalciferol or cholecalciferol are available in New Zealand, Asia and the United States and would be useful in Australia to treat moderate to severe vitamin D deficiency states in the elderly and those with poor absorption; one or two annual intramuscular doses of 300 000 IU of cholecalciferol have been shown to reverse vitamin D deficiency states.     

社区糖尿病专病护理服务需求的帕累托分析与对策研究

背景　糖尿病是全球患病率较高的慢性非传染性疾病之一,社区护理在全国性糖尿病服务体系实施过程中有举足轻重的作用,不同情况的糖尿病患者社区护理需求存在差异。目的　基于帕累托法则,研究社区糖尿病患者或糖尿病前期患者对护理服务的需求特点。方法　于2017年10月-2018年1月,对上海市虹口区嘉兴路社区卫生服务中心辖区内的糖尿病患者或糖尿病高危人群实施问卷调查,主要调查内容为社区糖尿病专病护理服务项目的需求,包括数据采集、健康教育、个体干预及质量控制4大类58项。分别根据需求度与主动需求度对服务项目进行分类,用帕累托图法分析社区糖尿病患者的主要需求服务项目、次要需求服务项目及一般需求服务项目。结果　发放问卷318份,回收有效问卷318份,问卷有效回收率为100.0%。基于需求度的帕累托分类结果显示,调查对象的主要需求和次要需求服务项目占总项目数的86.2%,贡献了87.1%的累计构成比;基于主动需求度的帕累托分类结果显示,主要需求和次要需求服务项目占总项目数的58.6%,贡献了89.3%的累计构成比,服务人群的主要需求集中在数据采集、个体干预的“血糖监测”和“用药干预”、健康教育的“健康教育内容”等方面。结论　社区糖尿病专病护理服务项目不存在明显的需求差异,但存在明显的主动需求差异。因此,社区糖尿病专病护理一方面应努力提高服务提供的能力,尽可能满足需方的多样化需求;另一方面,要抓住服务对象的主动需求偏好,加大相应服务的宣传和推广,为逐步开展其他服务项目打下有利的基础。