Consequences and therapy of the metabolic acidosis of chronic kidney disease

Metabolic acidosis is common in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD), particularly once the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) falls below 25 ml/min/1.73 m². It is usually mild to moderate in magnitude with the serum bicarbonate concentration ([HCO₃⁻]) ranging from 12 to 23 mEq/l. Even so, it can have substantial adverse effects, including development or exacerbation of bone disease, growth retardation in children, increased muscle degradation with muscle wasting, reduced albumin synthesis with a predisposition to hypoalbuminemia, resistance to the effects of insulin with impaired glucose tolerance, acceleration of the progression of CKD, stimulation of inflammation, and augmentation of β₂-microglobulin production. Also, its presence is associated with increased mortality. The administration of base to patients prior to or after initiation of dialysis leads to improvement in many of these adverse effects. The present recommendation by the National Kidney Foundation Kidney Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative (NKF KDOQI) is to raise serum [HCO₃⁻] to ≥22 mEq/l, whereas Caring for Australians with Renal Impairment (CARI) recommends raising serum [HCO₃⁻] to >22 mEq/l. Base administration can potentially contribute to volume overload and exacerbation of hypertension as well as to metastatic calcium precipitation in tissues. However, sodium retention is less when given as sodium bicarbonate and sodium chloride intake is concomitantly restricted. Results from various studies suggest that enhanced metastatic calcification is unlikely with the pH values achieved during conservative base administration, but the clinician should be careful not to raise serum [HCO₃⁻] to values outside the normal range.     

Complications of metabolic acidosis and alkalinizing therapy in chronic kidney disease patients: a clinician-directed organ-specific primer

International Urology and Nephrology - Chronic kidney disease is prevalent, affecting more than one in ten adults. In this population, metabolic acidosis is considered a key underlying...     

Urine citrate excretion as a marker of acid retention in patients with chronic kidney disease without overt metabolic acidosis

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558例非透析慢性肾脏病患者骨代谢指标的分析

目的 调查我院非透析慢性肾脏病患者骨代谢指标,为早期监测慢性肾脏病的矿物质及骨代谢异常提供依据。方法 回顾性分析我科住院的非透析慢性肾脏病患者558例,检测血甲状旁腺素(iPTH) , β-胶原特殊序列测定(β-CTX )、骨钙素、25-羟基维生素D3[25(OH)D3]、钙、磷、碱性磷酸酶(AKP)、肌酐、白蛋白、血糖等指标,留取晨尿进行尿常规及24 h尿蛋白定量检查,并分析相关影响因素。结果558例CKD患者平均年龄(70.6±15. 6 )岁,其中男性51.1%,女性48.9%,骨代谢指标男女性别间差异无统计学意义(P > 0. 05)。iPTH , β-CTX、骨钙素、血磷在CKD1-3期患者间差异无统计学意义,但与CKD4、5期患者差异有统计学意义(P<0.001);AKP在CKD5期明显升高。25(OH)D3在CKD1-5期患者中差异无统计学意义,各期CKD患者均存在25(OH)D3的不足及缺乏,其患病率分别为24.7% ,70.1%。单因素相关分析显示,MDRD-eGFR与iPTH ( r=–0. 457 ) , β-CTX (r=–0. 501)、骨钙素(r=–0. 485 )、血磷(r=–0. 501) ,AKP( r=–0. 187 )、年龄(r=–0. 140 )水平相关,均P<0.01;与血钙(r =– 0. 084 )水平相关,P < 0. 05。结论 非透析CKD患者各骨代谢指标在CKD早期无明显差异,但随着肾功能的减退进行性升高,且其之间存在正相关关系。CKD患者普遍存在25(OH)D3的缺乏且在CKD早期即有。     

Prevalence of chronic kidney disease in adults with metabolic syndrome

The burden of chronic kidney disease (CKD) and other non- communicable diseases continues to rise globally, and recent studies suggest that metabolic syndrome (MS) may add to this burden by contributing to the development of CKD. Given that reports on the prevalence of CKD in patients with MS in this environment are scanty, this study was undertaken with the sole aim of determining the prevalence of CKD in subjects with MS as defined by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) and the National Cholesterol Education Project Adult Treatment Panel III (NCEP ATP III). A total of 240 consenting adults (18-70 years) attending the general out- patient clinic of the General Hospital Okrika for various ailments were studied. Subjects were screened for MS as per the above- mentioned criteria. Estimated GFR (eGFR) was determined with Modification of Diet for Renal Disease (MDRD) formula and CKD was defined as eGFR less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2 . Data was analyzed using SPSS version 12.0 and Epi info version 4.06d; P <0.05 was considered as significant. A total of 88 males and 152 females were screened for MS by both criteria. Eighty- four (35.0%) of 240 subjects had MS as defined by NCEP ATP III, while 85 (35.4%) had MS as defined by the IDF. The subjects were predominantly females, and mean age was between 54.74 ± 15.30 and 55.60 ± 14.81 years. Four of the 84 (4.8%) subjects with MS by NCEP ATP III definition had CKD while three of the 85 (3.5%) subjects with MS by IDF definition had CKD. Among subjects without MS by either definition, the prevalence of CKD was four of 140 (2.9%). Although the prevalence of CKD was higher among subjects with MS by ATP III compared with those with MS as defined by IDF and subjects without MS, the differences were not statistically significant (X2 = 0.14; P = 0.710). A comparison of MS subjects without CKD and those with CKD did not show any significant difference in age, waist circumference, body mass index, blood pressure, fasting blood glucose and lipid profile (P > 0.05). CKD was more common in subjects with MS compared with those without, although the difference was not statistically significant. The prevalence of CKD in subjects with MS in our study population did not differ significantly when the different MS definitions were employed.     

Cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with renal failure. Patients with chronic kidney disease have significant CVD, and carry a high cardiovascular burden by the time they commence renal replacement therapy (RRT). The severity of CVD that has been observed in dialysis patients lead to a growing body of research examining the pathogenesis and progression of CVD during the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD) to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) (ie, predialysis phase). Multiple factors are involved in the development of CVD in CKD. More importantly, critical and key factors seem to develop early in the course of CKD, and result in preventable worsening of CVD in this patient population. Anemia is common in patients with CKD, and has been shown to have an independent role in the genesis of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and subsequent CVD. Unfortunately, it is underdiagnosed and undertreated in patients with CKD. Early intervention, and better correction of anemia, seems to gain a great momentum in the prevention and management of CVD in CKD. Hypertension is another risk factor that has been targeted by the National Kidney Foundation Task Force on CVD in chronic kidney disease. This article reviews the different factors involved in the pathogenesis of CVD in CKD and the evidence supporting early and aggressive intervention.     

膀胱引流式胰、肾联合移植长期存活患者代谢性酸中毒的转归

目的 总结膀胱引流式胰，肾联合移植术后长期存活患者代谢性酸中毒的演变规律及处理经验。方法 对2例膀胱引流式胰，肾联合移植术后长期存活（5年，8年）患者进行随访。观察其临床表现，血液气体分析及碳酸氢钠的给药方式，剂量和疗效。结果 2例患者术后均发生代谢性酸中毒，需长期给予碳酸氢钠替代治疗。结论 膀胱引流式胰，肾联合移植术后的代谢性酸中毒很难自行代偿纠正。一定程度上影响了患者的生活质量。     

The metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The metabolic syndrome is a constellation of physical and laboratory abnormalities including hypertension, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and abdominal obesity. Over the past decade, the metabolic syndrome has emerged as a critically important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. RECENT FINDINGS: A large population-based cross-sectional analysis (the National Health and Nutrition Evaluation Survey III) found that the presence of the metabolic syndrome was associated with chronic kidney disease, defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate of less than 60 ml/min per 1.73 m and was also associated with proteinuria. More recently, a prospective cohort study found that the presence of the metabolic syndrome was associated with incident chronic kidney disease by the same definition, even when excluding individuals with diabetes mellitus and hypertension. More studies are required to determine whether the relationship between the metabolic syndrome and chronic kidney disease is mainly mediated by hyperglycemia (with insulin resistance) and hypertension, or other metabolic or hemodynamic factors. SUMMARY: The metabolic syndrome is associated with chronic kidney disease. Efforts aimed at determining the mechanisms underlying this association and strategies for the prevention of chronic kidney disease (or slowing the progression of chronic kidney disease) in affected patients should be research priorities in the future.     

Adynamic bone in patients with chronic kidney disease

Adynamic bone in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a clinical concern because of its potential increased risk for fracture and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Prevalence rates for adynamic bone are reportedly increased, although the variance for its prevalence and incidence is large. Differences in its prevalence are largely attributed to classification and population differences, the latter of which constitutes divergent groups of elderly patients having diabetes and other comorbidities that are prone to low bone formation. Most patients have vitamin D deficiency and the active form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, invariably decreases to very low levels during CKD progression. Fortunately, therapy with vitamin D receptor activators (VDRAs) appears to be useful in preventing bone loss, in part, by its effect to stimulate bone formation and in decreasing CVD morbidity, and should be considered as essential therapy regardless of bone turnover status. Future studies will depend on assessing cardiovascular outcomes to determine whether the risk/reward profile for complications related to VDRA and CKD is tolerable.     

Infections and cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic kidney disease

Although interest in the nexus of cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD) has mushroomed, especially in the in past 5 years, activity in the arena of CKD-related infection has been much more modest. This development is surprising when one considers the increasing evidence that links inflammation, kidney disease, and cardiovascular disease. Also, major infections, such as pneumonia and septicemia, are paradigmatic inflammatory states, and accumulating evidence indicates that they are a common antecedent of new cardiovascular events in dialysis patients. Major infections are associated with higher rates of cardiovascular events and death in dialysis patients, and similar associations have been observed in community settings. Although recent studies suggest that hospitalization for major infections is much more common in nondialysis CKD than in the general population, the prognostic implications remain unexplored.     

Uremia-related metabolic cardiac risk factors in chronic kidney disease

Growing evidence has been gathered over the last 15 years regarding the role of nontraditional or uremia-related risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis in subjects with renal failure. Among those factors, dyslipidemia, inflammation, hyperhomocysteinemia, and oxidant stress have been extensively studied. However, the clinical significance of many of these factors remains controversial in light of reported studies. In this article, the existing evidence regarding the role of uremia-related risk factors in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis is reviewed, with special emphasis on prevalence, cardiac risk, and management in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Consensus treatment recommendations are provided for risk factors for which there is evidence to support preventive or therapeutic interventions.