Occipital Nerve Blockade for Cervicogenic Headache: A Double-Blind Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial

Abstract:   Cervicogenic headache is a chronic hemicranial pain, usually occurring daily. This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial evaluated the effectiveness of nerve stimulator-guided occipital nerve blockade in the treatment of cervicogenic headache. The reduction in analgesic consumption was the primary outcome measure. Fifty adult patients diagnosed with cervicogenic headache were randomly divided into two equal groups of 25 patients each. All patients in both groups received greater and lesser occipital blocks, whereas only 16 patients in each group received facial nerve blockade in association with the occipital blocks. The control group received injections of an equivalent volume of preservative-free normal saline. Pain was assessed using the visual analog scale (VAS) and the Total Pain Index (TPI). Forty-seven patients entered into the final analysis as three patients were lost to follow-up. Anesthetic block was effective in reducing the VAS and the TPI by approximately 50% from baseline values ( P  = 0.0001). Analgesic consumption, duration of headache and its frequency, nausea, vomiting, photophobia, phonophobia, decreased appetite, and limitations in functional activities were significantly less in block group compared to control group ( P  < 0.05). The nerve stimulator-guided occipital nerve blockade significantly relieved cervicogenic headache and associated symptoms at two weeks following injection.     

Botulinum Toxin Occipital Nerve Block for the Treatment of Severe Occipital Neuralgia: A Case Series

▪ Abstract:   Persistent occipital neuralgia can produce severe headaches that are difficult to control by conservative or surgical approaches. We retrospectively describe a series of six patients with severe occipital neuralgia who received conservative and interventional therapies, including oral antidepressants, membrane stabilizers, opioids, and traditional occipital nerve blocks without significant relief. This group then underwent occipital nerve blocks using the botulinum toxin type A (BoNT-A) BOTOX® Type A (Allergan, Inc., Irvine, CA, U.S.A.) 50 U for each block (100 U if bilateral). Significant decreases in pain Visual Analog Scale (VAS) scores and improvement in Pain Disability Index (PDI) were observed at four weeks follow-up in five out of six patients following BoNT-A occipital nerve block. The mean VAS score changed from 8 ± 1.8 (median score of 8.5) to 2 ± 2.7 (median score of 1), while PDI improved from 51.5 ± 17.6 (median 56) to 19.5 ± 21 (median 17.5) and the duration of the pain relief increased to an average of 16.3 ± 3.2 weeks (median 16) from an average of 1.9 ± 0.5 weeks (median 2) compared to diagnostic 0.5% bupivacaine block. Following block resolution, the average pain scores and PDI returned to similar levels as before BoNT-A block. In conclusion, BoNT-A occipital nerve blocks provided a much longer duration of analgesia than diagnostic local anesthetics. The functional capacity improvement measured by PDI was profound enough in the majority of the patients to allow patients to resume their regular daily activities for a period of time. ▪     

The effect of oral gabapentin on postdural puncture headache

Postdural puncture headache (PDPH) has been a vexing problem for patients undergoing dural puncture for spinal anaesthesia since Bier reported the first case in 1898. Gabapentin is a structural analogue of gamma-aminobutyricacid (GABA), which was first developed as an anticonvulsant drug. In this study, we investigated the efficacy and tolerability of administration of oral gabapentin in PDPH. Twenty ASA I–II patients who developed PDPH after spinal anaesthesia were included in this study. After PDPH was diagnosed by the postural component of the pain, all the patients were treated with bed rest and fluid hydration in postoperative care. Patients were randomised to receive either gabapentin (Group 1) or placebo (Group 2). Group 1 (n = 10) received 900 mg/day three times a day of gabapentin 300 mg (Neurontin; Pfizer) orally and the same dose was repeated every 8 h for 4 days. The patients’ headaches were evaluated by using the visual analogue scale (VAS) for 4 days. Other complications such as somnolence, ataxia, light-headedness, dizziness and visual disturbances were also followed.

VAS scores were significantly lower in Group 1 than in Group 2 for the 4 days of the study. Administration of oral gabapentin in patients with PDPH after spinal anaesthesia is an effective and safe treatment.     

The Efficacy of Levobupivacaine, Ropivacaine, and Bupivacaine for Combined Psoas Compartment–Sciatic Nerve Block in Patients Undergoing Total Hip Arthroplasty

Background and Objectives:   The aim of our study was to compare postoperative analgesic efficacy, and the extent of sensory and motor blockade of levobupivacaine, ropivacaine, and bupivacaine administered in a combined psoas compartment–sciatic nerve block (PCSNB) for total hip arthroplasty.
Methods:   Forty-five patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty under general anesthesia combined with PCSNB, were randomly assigned to receive either 50 mL levobupivacaine 3 mg/mL, 50 mL ropivacaine 4.5 mg/mL or 50 mL bupivacaine 3 mg/mL with epinephrine. Postoperative, the pain intensity at rest, the degree of motor block (Modified Bromage Scale) and the extent of sensory block (pin prick test) were recorded at 4, 8, 12, 24, and 48 hours following initial injection in a double blind fashion.
Results:   The postoperative pain intensity was low and did not differ between groups, except for a significantly lower pain intensity in group ropivacaine compared with group levobupivacaine at 4 hours. Five patients (11%), equally divided over three groups, needed parenteral rescue opiates postoperatively. The extent of sensory block was not different between the three groups. In each group the majority of patients showed no sensory block in dermatome L1. Group levobupivacaine initially showed the least motor impairment. Motor impairment was found to be significantly higher in bupivacaine group compared with both ropivacaine and levobupivacaine groups at 12 ( P  = 0.012) and 48 hours ( P  = 0.003).
Conclusions:   Levobupivacaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine are equally effective for PCSNB in patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty. Residual pain may be due to the lack of sensory block in dermatome L1, suggesting that modification of this technique should be considered for this type of surgery. ▪     

Preoperative vs. Postoperative Bilateral Paravertebral Blocks for Laparoscopic Cholecystectomy: A Prospective Randomized Clinical Trial

Background: The aim of this clinical trial was to determine the potential analgesic effect of preoperative paravertebral blockade in patients undergoing laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Methods: Sixty patients scheduled for laparoscopic cholecystectomy were randomized to one of two groups with 30 patients each: bilateral nerve stimulator guided paravertebral blockade at the T5 to T6 level either prior to induction of general anesthesia (Group 1) or blockade immediately postoperatively (Group 2). Results: The preoperative paravertebral block group had significantly lower visual analog scale scores compared with the postoperative paravertebral block group both at rest 12 hours postoperatively (1.06 vs. 1.89; P < 0.05), on movement 12 hours postoperatively (1.89 vs. 3.00; P < 0.001) and on coughing 12 hours postoperatively (2.24 vs. 3.17; P < 0.01). The consumption of analgesics as well as the duration of hospital stay was significantly reduced in patients receiving preoperative paravertebral blocks (P < 0.05). [Correction added after online publication 27th May 2011: visual analog scores were amended] Conclusion: Bilateral paravertebral blockade performed prior to general anesthesia for laparoscopic cholecystectomy can provide early discharge and better postoperative pain management.     

肋间神经阻滞联合静脉自控镇痛对胸腔镜手术患者术后镇痛效果的观察

目的：观察肋间神经阻滞联合静脉自控镇痛对电视辅助胸腔镜手术患者术后的镇痛效果。方法：28例美国麻醉医师学会（ASA）分级Ⅰ-Ⅱ级、年龄19-65岁、无慢性疼痛史、择期行电视辅助胸腔镜手术的胸外科患者。患者随机分为2组：肋间神经阻滞联合静脉自控镇痛组（INB＋PCIA组）和静脉自控镇痛组（PCIA组）。2组患者在手术结束前由胸外科医师在胸腔镜直视下在放置胸腔引流管的肋间和上下各一肋间行肋间神经阻滞,INB＋PCIA组用0.375%罗哌卡因,PCIA组给予0.9%氯化钠液。所有患者均采用芬太尼静脉自控镇痛。随访患者术后4h、24h和48h在平静状态和躯体活动（如咳嗽）时的切口疼痛情况。疼痛评分采用视觉模拟评分法（VAS评分）。记录患者术后4h、24h和48h静脉自控镇痛芬太尼累积用量和术后恶心、呕吐的发生率。观察患者术后有无肋间神经阻滞引起的并发症。结果：2组患者年龄、性别和术后胸腔引流管放置数量均无显著差异。INB＋PCIA组患者在术后4h静息状态、躯体活动状态和24h躯体活动状态时的VAS评分显著低于PCIA组（P〈0.01）。2组患者在术后24h静息状态和48h静息状态、躯体活动时的VAS评分均无显著差异。INB＋PCIA组术后静脉镇痛所需芬太尼累积剂量显著低于PCIA组（P〈0.05）。PCIA组有2例患者需术后追加芬太尼,INB＋PCIA组无患者术后追加麻醉性镇痛药,2组间无显著差异（P〉0.05）。2组患者术后恶心、呕吐发生率无显著差异（P〉0.05）。2组患者均无肋间神经阻滞引起的并发症。结论：用0.375%罗哌卡因行肋间神经阻滞联合静脉自控镇痛的镇痛方式能减轻胸腔镜手术患者术后24h内的急性疼痛,并且能减少静脉自控镇痛阿片类药物的累积用量。     

Transient Facial Nerve Palsy After Occipital Nerve Block: A Case Report

Occipital nerve blocks are commonly performed to treat a variety of headache syndromes and are generally believed to be safe and well tolerated. We report the case of an otherwise healthy 24‐year‐old woman with left side‐locked occipital, parietal, and temporal pain who was diagnosed with probable occipital neuralgia. She developed complete left facial nerve palsy within minutes of blockade of the left greater and lesser occipital nerves with a solution of bupivicaine and triamcinolone. Magnetic resonance imaging of the brain with gadolinium contrast showed no abnormalities, and symptoms had completely resolved 4‐5 hours later. Unintended spread of the anesthetic solution along tissue planes seems the most likely explanation for this adverse event. An aberrant course of the facial nerve or connections between the facial and occipital nerves also might have played a role, along with the patient's prone position and the use of a relatively large injection volume of a potent anesthetic. Clinicians should be aware that temporary facial nerve palsy is a possible complication of occipital nerve block.     

不同药物行神经阻滞治疗颈源性头痛疗效比较

目的比较得宝松、曲安奈德和来比林行神经阻滞治疗颈源性头痛的疗效。方法60例颈源性头痛患者随机分为3组,每组20例,分别应用得宝松、曲安奈德和来比林配成利多卡因浓度为0.4%的消炎镇痛液,根据体征行枕大、枕小、耳大神经或C2横突阻滞,每个穿刺点注射3ml。治疗前后对3组患者进行疼痛程度数字评分(NRS)和颈部活动度(ROM)评价。结果治疗后,3组患者的NRS和ROM评分均较治疗前明显改善(P<0.01);得宝松组和曲安奈德组相比较,疗效无显著性差异,但两组均明显优于来比林组(P<0.01)。结论得宝松或曲安奈德行神经阻滞可明显缓解颈源性头痛的疼痛程度。     

Repetitive Occipital Nerve Blockade for Cervicogenic Headache: Expanded Case Report of 47 Adults

Purpose: To evaluate the repetitive occipital nerve blocks using a nerve stimulator in the treatment of cervicogenic headache. Methods: This prospective noncomparative clinical interventional case‐series study included 47 patients suffering from cervicogenic headache using a repetitive guided occipital nerve blockade. Results: Forty‐one patients (87%) required more than one injection to achieve six‐month pain‐relief period. For every three years of headache history, the outcomes demonstrated that a patient needed one additional injection to the basic injection. Conclusion: The repeated nerve stimulator‐guided occipital nerve blockade is a treatment mode that may relieve cervicogenic headache with no recurrence for at least six months in addition to alleviation of associated symptoms.     

Occipital Nerve Blocks: Effect of Symptomatic Medication

Objective.— To explore the effect of symptomatic medication overuse (SMO) and headache type on occipital nerve block (ONB) efficacy.
Methods.— We conducted a chart review of all of the ONBs performed in our clinic over a 2-year period.
Results.— Of 108 ONBs with follow-up data, ONB failed in 22% of injections overall. Of the other 78%, the mean decrease in head pain was 83%, and the benefit lasted a mean of 6.6 weeks. Failure rate without SMO was 16% overall, and with SMO was 44% overall ( P  < .000). In those who did respond, overall magnitude and duration of response did not differ between those with and those without SMO. Without SMO, ONB failure rate was 0% for postconcussive syndrome, 14% for occipital neuralgia, 11% for non-intractable migraine, and 39% for intractable migraine. With SMO, failure rate increased by 24% ( P  = .14) in occipital neuralgia, by 36% ( P  = .08) for all migraine, and by 52% ( P  = .04) for non-intractable migraine.
Conclusions.— SMO tripled the risk of ONB failure, possibly because medication overuse headache does not respond to ONB. SMO increased ONB failure rate more in migraineurs than in those with occipital neuralgia, possibly because migraineurs are particularly susceptible to medication overuse headache. This effect was much more pronounced in non-intractable migraineurs than in intractable migraineurs.     

神经刺激仪定位下臂丛神经阻滞效果观察

目的探讨神经刺激仪引导下定位行臂丛神经阻滞的临床效果。方法将68例拟在臂丛神经阻滞下行择期手术的患者按随机数字表法分为2组,每组34例。Ⅰ组应用周围神经刺激仪行腋路、肌间沟联合臂丛神经阻滞：Ⅱ组运用传统方法行联合臂丛神经阻滞。阻滞后30min观察感觉和运动阻滞效果,对2组患者臂丛神经阻滞实施时间、阻滞起效时间、手术时间及术后并发症进行比较。结果2组手术时间比较差异无统计学意义（P〉0．05）。Ⅰ组阻滞时间及阻滞起效时间分别为（10．1±2．8）min和（12．9±1．8）min,Ⅱ组阻滞时间及阻滞起效时间分别为（11．5±2．7）min和（14．6±2．2）min,I组臂丛神经阻滞实施时间及阻滞起效时间较Ⅱ组明显缩短（均P〈0．05）。2组均未出现动脉损伤、气胸等并发症。结论神经刺激仪定位下臂丛神经阻滞较传统方法联合臂丛神经阻滞成功率更高．阻滞实施更快。     

Cushing Syndrome Induced by Serial Occipital Nerve Blocks Containing Corticosteroids

A patient with chronic daily headaches developed overt signs of Cushing syndrome during treatment with serial occipital nerve block injections. Investigation demonstrated an exogenous source of corticosteroids as the cause of the Cushing syndrome in this patient, thus, implicating the corticosteroid component of the occipital nerve blocks. To our knowledge, this is the first report of Cushing syndrome caused by occipital nerve blockade. Caution is warranted in employing even usual therapeutic doses of synthetic corticosteroids, particularly in long-acting or depot preparations.     

Neural Modulation by Blocks and Infusions

Abstract:   Neural blockade is widely used in clinical practice to alleviate acute or chronic pain, including neuropathic pain. However, to date there is little controlled evidence to confirm the efficacy of nerve blocks in neuropathic pain. The most common indication for nerve blocks, especially sympathetic blockade, is complex regional pain syndrome, in which success rates of up to 38% have been achieved, depending on the type of the block used. Greater efficacy has been achieved by combining a nerve block with patient-controlled analgesia. Sympathectomy is recommended for the treatment of neuropathic pain only after careful consideration of its usefulness, effectiveness, and risk of adverse effects. Current evidence and clinical experience suggest that neural blockade could be a useful adjunct in the management of refractory neuropathic pain, but further well-controlled studies would be of great benefit to support this type of therapy.     

糖尿病对膝关节置换术后急性疼痛的影响:前瞻性队列研究

  目的  比较有/无糖尿病的膝关节骨关节炎(knee osteoarthritis, KOA)患者关节置换术后急性疼痛的差异。  方法  前瞻性收集并分析2017年10月至2018年2月在首都医科大学附属北京朝阳医院行单侧全膝关节置换术(total knee arthroplasty, TKA)患者的临床资料。依据是否合并糖尿病，分为糖尿病组和非糖尿病组。两组患者均采用蛛网膜下腔麻醉联合单次股神经阻滞麻醉，术后均采用经静脉患者自控镇痛(patient controlled intravenousanalgesia, PCIA)，若静息状态下视觉模拟评分(visual analogue scale, VAS)＞4分时，则口服羟考酮5 mg镇痛。比较两组术前及术后4 h、1 d、2 d、3 d、4 d、5 d静息/运动状态VAS评分及术后不同时间点镇痛泵内药物用量、口服羟考酮剂量。记录PCIA使用期间不良反应发生情况。  结果  共117例符合纳入和排除标准的KOA患者入选本研究，其中糖尿病组49例、非糖尿病组68例。两组患者术前及术后4 h、1 d静息/运动状态VAS评分差异无统计学意义(P均＞0.05)，糖尿病组术后2、3、4、5 d静息/运动状态VAS评分明显高于非糖尿病组(P均＜0.05)。两组患者术后4 h内镇痛泵用药量、术后1 d口服羟考酮剂量差异无统计学意义(P均＞0.05)，糖尿病组术后2、3、4、5 d口服羟考酮剂量及术后24、48 d内镇痛泵用药量多于非糖尿病组(P均＜0.05)。两组PCIA使用期间恶心呕吐、头晕发生率无统计学差异(P均＞0.05)。  结论  糖尿病可加剧KOA患者TKA术后(术后2~5 d)急性疼痛，增加早期阿片类镇痛药物的使用量。     

Nerve Stimulator-Guided Repetitive Paravertebral Block for Thoracic Myofascial Pain Syndrome

▪ Abstract:   Myofascial pain syndrome (MPS) may persist for many years and is often refractory to traditional therapeutic approaches including pharmacotherapy, focal tenderness infiltration by local anesthetic and corticosteroids, physical therapy and behavioral modification. This report describes three cases of MPS following coronary artery bypass graft, inadequate positioning during abdominal hysterectomy, and excessive physical effort refractory to conventional therapeutic approaches. Three patients were successfully treated with repeated nerve stimulator-guided paravertebral block using a mixture of bupivacaine and clonidine.
Physical examinations including a complete neurological assessments were unremarkable. Relevant diagnostic imaging (X-ray, magnetic resonance imaging, computed tomography) and laboratory evaluations also failed to demonstrate any significant structural disorders or systemic diseases that might have been responsible for their pain. Nerve stimulator-guided paravertebral block was performed at the dermatomes corresponding to the thoracic myofascial pain region. Each point was injected with 4 mL of the local anesthetic solution. If the pain returned, a second paravertebral block was performed. The three patients were pain-free over a follow-up period up to 2 years. Our report suggests that nerve stimulator-guided paravertebral blockade could be a useful treatment for MPS refractory to traditional therapeutic approaches. ▪     

急诊阑尾切除术中超声引导腹横肌平面阻滞的镇痛效果

目的：探讨全麻急诊阑尾切除术中超声引导腹横肌平面阻滞的镇痛效果。方法全麻下接受急诊开腹阑尾切除术患者50例,采用计算机排序分为A、B组各25例,分别予以超声引导腹横肌平面阻滞和常规麻醉。观察并记录48 h内各随访时点运动与静息时的数字评分（ NRS）,使用镇痛药物辅助的病例数,患者对术后疼痛缓解自我评分以及镇痛相关并发症。结果在12 h内各时点静息与运动时的NRS评分,A组明显低于B组（ P＜0.05）,24～48 h各时点两组间比较差异无统计学意义（P ＞0.05）。 A组患者术后疼痛缓解自我评分明显高于B组（P＜0.05）。术后第一日和第二日辅助镇痛药使用率A组低于B组（ P＜0.05）。结论超声引导下腹横肌平面阻滞可以产生良好12小时左右的术后镇痛。在多模式镇痛中可能更占优势。     

The effect of three positioning methods on patient outcomes after cardiac catheterization

Title.  The effect of three positioning methods on patient outcomes after cardiac catheterization.
Aim.  This paper is a report of a study to investigate the effect of three positioning protocols on back pain, heart rate, blood pressure and vascular complications after cardiac catheterization.
Background.  After cardiac catheterization, bed rest is prescribed in order to minimize vascular complications, but this often leads to back pain and other complications, such as hemodynamic instability.
Methods.  A three-group quasi-experimental design was used in this study, which was conducted in 2006. A convenience sample of 105 patients was randomly assigned to either the control or the two experimental groups (A and B). The control group received routine care. Group B was treated only with modified positioning and group A with modified positioning and a pillow under their body. Back pain, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, haematoma formation and bleeding were measured at regular time intervals.
Findings.  The control group experienced higher levels of pain after 3, 6, 8 hours and the morning after catheterization. The level of pain in group B was also higher than in group A at 3 hours after the procedure. Mean heart rate and blood pressure were lower in the experimental groups compared with the control group at 6 and 8 hours after catheterization. No statistically significant difference between the three groups regarding the amounts of overall bleeding and overall haematoma formation was observed.
Conclusion.  Changing position in bed and using a supportive pillow during the early hours after cardiac catheterization can effectively minimize pain and hemodynamic instability without increasing vascular complications.     

Effect of 24-Hour Bed Rest versus Early Ambulation on Headache after Spinal Anesthesia: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Objectives: We performed a systematic review of the evidence for the effectiveness of bed rest after dural puncture to update current evidence on the topic. Design: The design was a systematic review and meta-analysis. Data Sources: We searched 10 electronic databases in English (Medline, CINAHL, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Controlled Trial Register) and Korean (KISS, KMBASE, NDSL, and RISS) using the terms “post–dural puncture headache,” “spinal anesthesia,” “epidural anesthesia,” and “bed rest” to identify reports discussing the effectiveness of bed rest in preventing post–dural puncture headache (PDPH) after spinal anesthesia from 1980 to 2014. Review/Analysis Methods: Original studies such as randomized and nonrandomized controlled trials, where participants were allocated to an intervention or control group, were included. A total of eight studies that met the inclusion criteria were independently reviewed and encoded by two review authors. To ensure the quality of the eight studies, levels of risk of bias were assessed by two different researchers. The main outcome was the prevalence of PDPH. Results: The included studies indicated that PDPH prevalence did not differ between the group assigned to 24 hours of bed rest and the group assigned to early ambulation. In subgroup analysis, the effect size of clinical factors (severity of headache, day of onset, and needle gauge) and the study characteristics (language and sample size) did not differ between groups. Conclusion: This meta-analysis of studies suggested that long-term bed rest after spinal anesthesia may not be effective in preventing PDPH.     

Combined Sciatic and Lumbar Plexus Nerve Blocks for the Analgesic Management of Hip Arthroscopy Procedures: A Retrospective Review

Hip arthroscopy is a minimally invasive alternative to open hip surgery. Despite its minimally invasive nature, there can still be significant reported pain following these procedures. The impact of combined sciatic and lumbar plexus nerve blocks on postoperative pain scores and opioid consumption in patients undergoing hip arthroscopy was investigated. A retrospective analysis of 176 patients revealed that compared with patients with no preoperative peripheral nerve block, significant reductions in pain scores to 24 hours were reported and decreased opioid consumption during the post anesthesia care unit (PACU) stay was recorded; no significant differences in opioid consumption out to 24 hours were discovered. A subgroup analysis comparing two approaches to the sciatic nerve block in patients receiving the additional lumbar plexus nerve block failed to reveal a significant difference for this patient population. We conclude that peripheral nerve blockade can be a useful analgesic modality for patients undergoing hip arthroscopy.