Peer networks and sensation seeking: some implications for primary socialization theory.

This article draws on recent work in sensation seeking and peer influences in drug use prevention and considers some possible implications for primary socialization theory. A particular point of focus is a postulate of the theory that an individual's personal characteristics and personality traits do not directly relate to drug use and deviance but ordinarily influence those outcomes only when they affect interactions between the individual and the primary socialization sources. The article suggests a more broadly encompassing perspective which holds that socialization learning through the primary socialization sources gives people's lives direction; it may be the tugs of activation needs which provide impetus for the actions. The authors cite a recent study in which they developed a structural equation model of influence of individual and peer variables on later alcohol and marijuana use. The model indicates an indirect route from individual sensation seeking through peers to drug and alcohol use, with adolescents picking persons of similar sensation-seeking levels, and the sensation-seeking level of these peers tending to influence alcohol and marijuana use. Although previous studies have suggested causal relationships between sensation seeking and drug use and between peer influence and drug use, the findings in this study suggest that the actual process involves both. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Primary socialization theory: it all begins with the family.

This commentary is a discussion of primary socialization theory emphasizing the centrality of family processes on adolescents' affiliation with deviant peers and subsequent deviant behaviors. The focus of the discussion is the persistent influence of family processes well into adolescence. An empirical model illustrating these processes is presented. The model is based on a sample of 257 runaway adolescents and indicates that the effects of an abusive family on adolescent behaviors are largely transmitted via affiliation with deviant peers. The author concludes that primary socialization theory would be strengthened by greater emphasis on the persistent influence of family on adolescent behaviors. Implications for family-based prevention programs are discussed. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Primary socialization theory: comments on racism, sexism, generational neglect, abuse, and abandonment.

This article asks whether primary socialization theory adequately deals with the most distressed and disadvantaged members of society, whether for most of them the family, school, and peers are the primary sources of socialization. Children who are subjected to the effects of racism, sexism, physical and mental abuse, inferior dangerous schools, and abandonment to foster care from birth may find other sources of primary socialization which can be either negative and positive. "Nihilism" and "anomie" are used to describe such children's position in their societies, and the article asks if those without benefit of the three primary sources of socialization can find ways to create new and positive norms, or whether they are doomed to lives of hopelessness and deviance. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Media and primary socialization theory.

This article discusses the role of media in the socialization process of adolescents, and supports the theory of primary socialization which identifies media as a secondary factor in the socialization process (as described in other articles in this series). Additionally, several models of information processing are presented which offer both a cognitive and affective model of processing communications. Finally, the article points to the need for future research to analyze the cases and implications of media's impact on adolescents when media serve as a primary, rather than a secondary, source of socialization. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Primary Socialization Theory. Developmental Stages,Spirituality, Government Institutions,Sensation Seeking,and Theoretical Implications. V

This fifth and final paper in the series on primary socialization theory includes discussion of issues raised by participants in a forum on the theory. The theory states that drug use and deviant behaviors occur as an outcome of bonding with primary socialization sources and the transmission of norms through those sources. Personal traits and secondary socialization sources influence drug use and deviance indirectly and through their effects on the primary socialization process. Developmentally, the only primary socialization source for the preschool child is the family. In early grade school years, the primary socialization sources are the family and school. Peer clusters emerge as a primary socialization source later, with their greatest effect occurring during adolescence. Adults have varied primary socialization patterns. Levels of ego development among adults may alter the primary socialization process. Spirituality is defined, and its influence on drug use is discussed. Government institutions, such as the criminal justice system, welfare, and child protective services, are now included among secondary socialization sources. The fact that the general theory of primary socialization is not ethnocentric or temporocentric is discussed. Implications of the theory for understanding existing or potential risk and protective factors for deviance, and for improving the effectiveness of prevention and treatment are discussed.     

Aging,alcoholism, anxiety,and sensation seeking: An explaratory investigation

Aging alcoholic (n = 36) and aging nonalcoholic (n = 35) male veterans were compared on biographic/demographic variables and psychological characteristics. Results indicated that aging alcoholics and nonalcoholics were married at approximately the same ages, married roughly the same number of times, and produced similar numbers of offspring, but aging alcoholics were better educated and had fewer persons economically dependent on them. They had higher scores than aging nonalcoholics on objective measures of state anxiety, trait anxiety, overall fears, tissue damage fears, social-interpersonal fears, miscellaneous fears, and failure/ loss of self-esteem fears. Aging alcoholics also had higher scores on the sensation-seeking variables of boredom susceptibility and disinhibition, suggesting the existence of a relationship between need for sensory stimulation and maladaptive drinking among aging alcoholics.     

The effects of alcohol, expectancy, and sensation seeking on driving risk taking

Using a cover story of the effects of alcohol on perceptual and motor abilities, two levels of alcohol consumed (moderate and none), two levels of alcohol expectancy (moderate and none), and two levels of sensation seeking (high and low) were combined to determine their effect on risk taking in a driving simulator. Ninety-six subjects were randomly assigned to eight conditions. Dependent variables were lane changes-cars passed and time at maximum speed. Results on lane-changes-cars passed indicated greater risk-taking in driving by high sensation seekers. Interaction of alcohol expectancy and sensation seeking indicated high sensation seekers took more risks when they believed they had consumed alcohol. Low sensation seekers became more cautious in driving when they believed they had consumed alcohol. Alcohol consumed did not produce a significant main effect or interaction.     

A twin study on sensation seeking, risk taking behavior and marijuana use

The contribution of genetic and environmental factors to the covariation between risk-taking and marijuana use was assessed in adolescent twins. Genetic factors were found to significantly influence some traits (i.e. risk-taking attitude), while familial environmental factors were important for others (i.e. sexual promiscuity). For marijuana use, genetic and environmental factors were equally important; however, the association between risk taking and marijuana use may not be comparable for different behaviors. Results suggest that different etiological factors may underlie various risk taking traits which is relevant to both prevention efforts and attempts to identify genes involved in risk taking and shared genetic influences with substance use.     

Influences of sensation seeking, gender, risk appraisal, and situational motivation on smoking

The study evaluated the current relationship between the trait of sensation seeking and smoking as possibly mediated by gender, cognitive risk appraisal and situational-relevant motivation. Subject were 1071 male and female undergraduates of whom 279 indicated they were past or current smokers and completed a Smoking Questionnaire (SQ). All subjects took the Sensation Seeking Scale. Sensation seeking is significantly (p less than .001) related to the proportion smoking in both men and women, although more women at the university are now smoking. Sensation seekers inhaled more of the smoke than lows, perhaps an indication of stronger nicotine need. Smoking was seen as highly risky, but the degree of estimated risk was not related to sensation seeking. Women reported smoking more in emotional and social situations; men reported smoking more in situations requiring close attention to a task. Sensation seekers reported smoking more than lows in social situations. Research is needed on specific cognitive factors mediating smoking and how they are related to personality and gender.     

Primary socialization theory and a bio/psycho/social/spiritual practice model for substance use.

This article supports primary socialization theory as a theory for practitioners to use in drug-user treatment and prevention interventions. Primary socialization theory is compatible with the bio/psycho/social/spiritual practice model and targeting the individual within his or her etiological domains/situation to initiate specific interventions. Governmental institutions are posited as an additional secondary socialization factor for primary socialization theory. Gender is stressed as important for primary socialization theory and is emphasized for carrying out interventions. [Translations are provided in the International Abstracts Section of this issue.]     

Ecstasy use and self-reported depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking: a prospective cohort study

Although there are indications that ecstasy users have higher levels of depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking, it is unknown whether these are consequences of ecstasy use or predisposing factors for starting ecstasy use. We prospectively assessed the predictive value of depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking on future first time ecstasy use. We also assessed whether depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking had changed after first ecstasy use. Depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking were assessed using self-report questionnaires in 188 ecstasy-naive volunteers with high probability for future ecstasy use. After a mean follow-up of 17 months, measurements were repeated in 59 incident ecstasy users (mean 6.0 tablets) and 61 matched persistent ecstasy-naive volunteers. Only experience seeking (subscale of the sensation seeking scale) predicted future ecstasy use (OR -- 1.05, 95% CI 1.00 to 1.10), but after adjustment for potential confounders this was not significant anymore. At follow-up, significant effects of ecstasy use on the general and the disinhibition subscale of the sensation seeking scale were observed (after adjustment for potential confounders: regression coefficient B 0.51, 95% CI 0.20 to 0.83 and B -- 3.25, 95% CI 1.74 to 4.76, respectively). These data indicate that depression, impulsivity, and sensation seeking do not predict first time ecstasy use in a population of young adults with the intention to start using ecstasy and that low level ecstasy use does not seem to cause depression or impulsivity. However, low level ecstasy use may increase (certain aspects of) sensation seeking.     

Curiosity killed the cocktail? Curiosity,sensation seeking,and alcohol-related problems in college women

Curiosity, composed of two factors: exploration and absorption, has been previously associated with life satisfaction, life meaningfulness, and enhanced positive affect. It also shares some overlap with sensation seeking, which has been linked to alcohol use and other addictive behaviors. The present research explored the association between curiosity and college women's problematic drinking in the context of sensation seeking. Participants (79 women) completed questionnaires measuring curiosity, sensation seeking, alcohol consumption, and consequences related to alcohol consumption. A zero-inflated negative binomial model indicated that curiosity and sensation seeking accounted for unique variance in alcohol-related problems after controlling for drinking. The curiosity factors had opposing relationships to alcohol-related problems: higher scores on absorption were associated with more alcohol-related problems whereas higher scores on exploration were associated with fewer alcohol-related problems. Should findings be replicated, the curiosity factors may represent additional prevention and intervention targets. Future directions for research about curiosity and drinking and for the inclusion of positive psychology constructs in addictive behaviors research are discussed.     

The relationship between impaired decision-making, sensation seeking and readiness to change in cigarette smokers

OBJECTIVE: The study investigated whether impaired decision-making as measured by the Gambling Task and Sensation Seeking, on one hand, and nicotine-dependence and readiness to change, on the other hand, show mutual influences in cigarette smokers. METHODS: Cigarette smokers were classified as dependent or non-dependent smokers. Assessment included stages of change (RCQ), decisional balance (DBS), Sensation Seeking Scale Form-V (SSS-V), and performance on the Gambling Task (GT). RESULTS: With the exception of a significant higher score in the SSS-V subscale Experience Seeking in dependent smokers, correlations between nicotine-dependence and cognitive features were not significant. The directions of the non-significant differences were not consistent. No significant relationship was found between the SSS-V and the GT, on one hand, and the readiness to change smoking behaviour, on the other hand. CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study suggest that impaired performance on the GT and high scores in Sensation Seeking do not play an important role in nicotine-dependence and readiness to change smoking behaviour or vice versa.     

Longitudinal trajectories of sensation seeking,risk taking propensity,and impulsivity across early to middle adolescence

Adolescent substance use and abuse show associations with increases in disinhibitory constructs, including sensation seeking, risk taking propensity, and impulsivity. However, the longitudinal trajectories of these constructs from early to middle adolescence remain largely unknown. Thus, the current study examined these developmental trajectories in 277 adolescents (M_age = 11.00 at Wave 1), over five consecutive yearly waves. Controlling for age, Hierarchical Linear Modeling analyses showed that sensation seeking increased linearly, whereas risk taking propensity and impulsivity demonstrated curvilinear changes. Specifically, risk taking propensity increased in the first four waves of assessment but did not evidence changes at the last assessment wave. Impulsivity, on the other hand peaked at wave four before subsequently declining. A comparison between females and males and Black and White adolescents suggested that these groups' trajectories were similar. Black adolescents' sensation seeking trajectory differed from adolescents who belonged to the “Other” racial group (i.e., adolescents who neither self-identified as Black or White). Generally, the study findings replicate and extend earlier work indicating that these risk factors increase across early adolescence and begin to level-off during middle adolescence. The importance of understanding the natural course of these core constructs is of great importance for directing future relevant prevention and intervention work.     

Personality correlates of caffeine dependence: the role of sensation seeking, impulsivity, and risk taking

The consumption of caffeine has become a growing concern, partially because of the withdrawal properties of the drug. The current study examined personality correlates of caffeine consumption and dependence in 60 university students. Self-report and behavioral measures of sensation seeking, impulsivity, and risk taking were administered to 2 groups, identified as caffeine dependent-high consuming or caffeine nondependent-low consuming. Scores on self-report measures of sensation seeking and impulsivity were related to group status, and only sensation seeking evidenced a significant relationship with group status when both variables were considered in a regression analysis. Implications of these findings and future directions are discussed.     

Relationships between sensation seeking and use of caffeine, alcohol and cigarettes by New Zealand university students

Form V of Zuckerman's Senation-Seeking Scale (SSS) was completed by a sample of psychology undergraduate students along with a questionnaire relating to their regular consumption of caffeinated and alcoholic beverages, and use of cigarettes. While there were no gender differences in the use of caffeine and cigarettes, men reported consuming nearly twice as much alcohol per week as women. Use of alcohol (but not caffeine or cigarettes) was positively related to sensation seeking in the form of thrill and adventure seeking, and boredom susceptibility for men, and disinhibition for both genders. Women generally achieved lower SSS scores than men. For both genders, caffeine use was positively related to cigarette, but not alcohol use. There were no relationships between the use of cigarettes and alcohol.     

The relations of trait anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and sensation seeking to adolescents'' motivations for alcohol, cigarette, and marijuana use

The present study investigated relations of anxiety sensitivity and other theoretically relevant personality factors to Copper's [Psychological Assessment 6 (1994) 117.] four categories of substance use motivations as applied to teens' use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana. A sample of 508 adolescents (238 females, 270 males; mean age = 15.1 years) completed the Trait subscale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory for Children, the Childhood Anxiety Sensitivity Index (CASI), and the Intensity and Novelty subscales of the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking. Users of each substance also completed the Drinking Motives Questionnaire-Revised (DMQ-R) and/or author-compiled measures for assessing motives for cigarette smoking and marijuana use, respectively. Multiple regression analyses revealed that, in the case of each drug, the block of personality variables predicted "risky" substance use motives (i.e., coping, enhancement, and/or conformity motives) over-and-above demographics. High intensity seeking and low anxiety sensitivity predicted enhancement motives for alcohol use, high anxiety sensitivity predicted conformity motives for alcohol and marijuana use, and high trait anxiety predicted coping motives for alcohol and cigarette use. Moreover, anxiety sensitivity moderated the relation between trait anxiety and coping motives for alcohol and cigarette use: the trait anxiety-coping motives relation was stronger for high, than for low, anxiety sensitive individuals. Implications of the findings for improving substance abuse prevention efforts for youth will be discussed.     

Pre-treatment measures of impulsivity, aggression and sensation seeking are associated with treatment outcome for African-American cocaine-dependent patients

We investigated whether measures of impulsivity, aggression and sensation seeking differed between cocaine-dependent subjects and controls, and whether these measures were related to treatment-outcome for cocaine patients. Pre-treatment assessments of impulsivity (Barratt Impulsivity Scale [BIS]), aggression (Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory [BDHI]) and sensation seeking (Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale [SSS]) were obtained for 141 African-American cocaine-dependent patients entering a 12-week, intensive outpatient treatment program and 60 controls. The outcome measures were number of negative urine drug screens, days in treatment, dropout rates and number of treatment sessions. Cocaine patients reported significantly higher scores on the SSS, the BIS and the BDHI than controls. Furthermore, the SSS scores showed a significantly negative correlation with days in treatment and negative urines, and a significant positive correlation with the dropout rate. The BIS and the BDHI scores were significantly associated with days in treatment and dropout rates respectively. A combination of the three variables contributed significantly toward predicting retention and abstinence. Higher levels of pretreatment impulsivity and aggression and sensation seeking seem to associated with poor treatment outcome for cocaine dependent patients receiving intensive outpatient treatment. Combining these behavioral measures with other clinical predictors may help in early identification of 'poor responders' who may benefit from additional or alternative treatment approaches.