Towards Global Age-Friendly Cities: Determining Urban Features that Promote Active Aging

At the same time as cities are growing, their share of older residents is increasing. To engage and assist cities to become more “age-friendly,” the World Health Organization (WHO) prepared the Global Age-Friendly Cities Guide and a companion “Checklist of Essential Features of Age-Friendly Cities”. In collaboration with partners in 35 cities from developed and developing countries, WHO determined the features of age-friendly cities in eight domains of urban life: outdoor spaces and buildings; transportation; housing; social participation; respect and social inclusion; civic participation and employment; communication and information; and community support and health services. In 33 cities, partners conducted 158 focus groups with persons aged 60 years and older from lower- and middle-income areas of a locally defined geographic area (n = 1,485). Additional focus groups were held in most sites with caregivers of older persons (n = 250 caregivers) and with service providers from the public, voluntary, and commercial sectors (n = 515). No systematic differences in focus group themes were noted between cities in developed and developing countries, although the positive, age-friendly features were more numerous in cities in developed countries. Physical accessibility, service proximity, security, affordability, and inclusiveness were important characteristics everywhere. Based on the recurring issues, a set of core features of an age-friendly city was identified. The Global Age-Friendly Cities Guide and companion “Checklist of Essential Features of Age-Friendly Cities” released by WHO serve as reference for other communities to assess their age readiness and plan change.     

The strategic network position: a feasible model for implementing a decentralized psychiatry

The Norwegian psychiatric health system is sectorized, decentralizedand mainly in the public domain. This paper examines the theoreticaland empirical foundation for community psychiatry with the responsibilityfor dealing with all mental disorders within the confines ofa community, both current and potential cases. Some resultsfrom a comprehensive epidemiological research project in a catchmentarea—Lofoten in Northern Norway—are presented. Thepaper describes a model— the strategic network position—andits application in the same area. A main requirement for themodel is a small catchment area (25—35 000 inhabitants)with geographical and personal proximity of psychiatric specialists,primary health services and other resources for mental healthin a community. The model aims at reaching in an optimal waythe people and the networks which influence the present andfuture mental health of the given communities. The model alsofocuses on various preventive and mental health promoting approacheswhich are feasible in the Norwegian social system. The recognizedstrategic networks consist of the most demanding patients, peoplewith explicit responsibility for treatment and care of definedpsychiatric patients, persons often in contact with people ina position to influence attitudes or with possibilities forobserving a great number of people, persons setting the frameworkand priorities for health and social services and people withspecial influence on the social function of the local communities.The attention and collaboration take place in the normal dayto day working situation, in offering support in crisis situationsand in establishing priorities when there is a need of psychiatrichelp. The model, so far, contributes in a promising way, bothto psychiatric treatment and implementation of mental healthpromotion in the community.     

Participation in health: systematization of the articles published in Brazilian journals - 1988 / 2005

This is a study involving the revision of 107 papers on participation in health, published in 25 Public Health journals, with a view to systematize its main focus points and identify the options for the participation of society in the health system. Bibliographic research was conducted using key words, and the reading of abstracts of articles published in national public health journals linked to the CAPES portal between 1988 and 2005. The articles selected were read and categorized according to methodological and thematic aspects. Three dimensions were identified: the main dimension emphasizes participation as a strategy for the enhancing of citizenship and recognition of the right to health; the second refers to participation as a strategy for democratization of the State and strengthening of the health system, including participation in political, managerial and inspection decisions; in the third dimension of community participation, individuals, families and the community share the responsibility for health with the State. In the works examined the participation in the health system is still in progress and highlights its importance as an incentive for social capital; however, some authors point to difficulties for effective participation in accordance with legal propositions.     

Community participation and social control in the health system

In Colombia, the 1991 Constitution established the obligation of promoting social participation. However, the discussion regarding the significance and scope of social participation is far from being over with the promulgation of the Constitution since social participation has a high political component, i.e., social participation requires the transfer of a part of power to sectors previously excluded from decision taking. As long as the State has conceived the market strategy as the best way to allocate resources and the receptors of social policy are considered as consumers, the challenge is to establish a balance between supply and demand in order to guarantee efficiency and efficacy in the application of resources and transparency in the public administration. Thus, the community of users has the mission of monitoring the correct allocation of State resources. Upon evaluating some of the results of the application of this strategy of social participation in health, three features can be highlighted: there are important advances in the promotion of social participation but not in social control; social control is dispersed and atomized, and participation as institutional policy is weak. Regarding the first aspect, it can be concluded that there has been a favorable response of the municipalities to the obligation of promoting the organizational forms of the community as far as health is concerned. When the actions carried out for social control are taken into account, the outlook varies. The convoking capacity of the institutions of the system to community organizations is considerably low, as well as the discussion of the reports presented by such organizations. On the other hand, the lack of communication between the different instances involved in both promotion of participation and social control became evident, situation which reflects the presence of relationships of bilateral nature, i.e., only the most direct interlocutor is known.     

Health, human development and the community ecosystem: three ecological models

Health, as both an expres and a component of human development,has to be seen in an ecological way as ‘the pattern thatconnects’ and the radical and subversive nature of anecological approach needs to be recognized. Three ecologicalmodels are presented, that of health, the links between health,environment and economy (or between ‘health for all’and sustainable development); and the social, environmentaland eco nomic dimensions of a healthy and sustainable com munity. The ‘Mandala of Health’, as a model of the humanecosystem, presents the determinants of health as a set of nestedinfluences, ranging from the biological and personal to theecological and planetary, including the social and political The health-environment-economy model shows the crucial linksbetween health (or social wellbeing) and environmental and economicwellbeing with a particular focus on two key public health principles—equityand sustainabilizy. The final model applies these concepts atthe community level, introducing such issues viability, convivialityand liveabilily. These models could be used to better understand health, to definekey criteria for hea Ithier public policies and to define somekey action areas for healthy city projects. It is in their applicationthat their value—and their ‘subversiveness’—willbe tested.     

The implementation of Good For The Neighborhood: a participatory community health program model in four minority underserved communities

To describe the participatory approach used to develop “Good For The Neighborhood” (GFTN), a community program to improve the health of four underserved communities. A core program was developed involving a “park and stay” approach to impact four underserved predominately minority communities (two predominately African American, 1 predominately Latino, and the Seneca Nation of Indians). The core program includes health screenings, risk assessments, health education, and exposure to health services. An extensive tracking and evaluation system was developed to determine participation and impact on the community. Multi-methods (key informant interviews, focus groups, surveys) were implemented to gain feedback from community partners and participants as to how to adopt the program to meet the needs of the community. GFTN has been sustained for over 3 years and has reached over 3,500 predominately minority individuals in four communities with 1/3 of participants engaging regularly in the program. The program has evolved in the four communities to meet specific needs. A “park and stay” approach in partnership with the community has led to a strong program that community partners and residents embrace. Community ownership and social networking, including word-of-mouth from residents is essential to establishing a successful program.     

Community participation and empowerment in primary health care in Emilia-Romagna: A document analysis study

Community participation and empowerment are seen as fundamental for achieving equitable, people-centred primary health care. Emilia-Romagna region introduced the Casa della Salute aiming to foster comprehensive primary health care and support community participation. Since the 1990s, community involvement has been promoted to improve the regional health system. The pivotal role of third sector organisations as service providers and advocates for users’ rights has been underlined. This contribution explores the evolution of the meaning and conceptualisation of community participation and empowerment in policies addressing the Casa della Salute. A qualitative document analysis study was undertaken. Three national and twelve regional documents dated between 2006 and 2019 were evaluated. The policies continuously address community participation. The Casa della Salute is seen as a designated place to promote participation and empowerment. The documents point to the need for democratic practice and shared decision-making power; third sector organisations are seen as salient community representatives and mediators. However, the policies show only a vague conceptualisation of how to empower communities; moreover, strategies to promote participation of vulnerable groups are lacking. Policies that consider the ambiguous role of the third sector, specify community empowerment, identify strategies to facilitate it and collaborate with vulnerable groups could be beneficial for further progress.     

Maternity referral systems in developing countries: current knowledge and future research needs

A functioning referral system is generally considered to be a necessary element of successful Safe Motherhood programmes. This paper draws on a scoping review of available literature to identify key requisites for successful maternity referral systems in developing countries, to highlight knowledge gaps, and to suggest items for a future research agenda. Key online social science, medical and health system bibliographic databases, and websites were searched in July 2004 for evidence relating to referral systems for maternity care. Documentary evidence on implementation is scarce, but it suggests that many healthcare systems in developing countries are failing to optimise women's rapid access to emergency obstetric care, and that the poor and marginalised are affected disproportionately. Likely requisites for successful maternity referral systems include: a referral strategy informed by the assessment of population needs and health system capabilities; an adequately resourced referral centre; active collaboration between referral levels and across sectors; formalised communication and transport arrangements; agreed setting-specific protocols for referrer and receiver; supervision and accountability for providers' performance; affordable service costs; the capacity to monitor effectiveness; and underpinning all of these, policy support. Theoretically informed social and organisational research is required on the referral care needs of the poor and marginalised, on the maternity workforce and organisation, and on the implications of the mixed economy of healthcare for referral networks. Clinical research is required to determine how maternity referral fits within newborn health priorities and where the needs are different. Finally, research is required to determine how and whether a more integrated approach to emergency care systems may benefit women and their communities.     

Increasing community participation in an Aboriginal health service

Objective: To increase Aboriginal participation with mainstream health professionals in an Aboriginal health and well‐being centre. Design: Participatory Action Research using Aboriginal traditional symbolism to depict aspects of the research process, interview surveys and a document review. Setting: A regional town with 629 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander residents and a newly established Aboriginal health and well‐being centre (Nunyara). Participants: Thirty Aboriginal community members were interviewed about their involvement with Nunyara and their health issues. Participants were selected through purposive ‘pass‐me‐around’ sampling to ensure that all family groups were included. Results: The results are presented in two areas: the structure of the Aboriginal community that affects participation and community views about health issues. Aboriginal people living in the town come from 10 or more different language groups and relate almost exclusively within their own groups. Activities at Nunyara were seen as individual family group events and not for everyone. Aboriginal community participants had a broad view of health as they reported problems that included smoking and alcohol use. Almost all would like more involvement in health issues through Nunyara. Conclusion: Aboriginal community members are willing to get involved in health issues in collaboration with Nunyara. However, fundamental to increasing participation is to bring people together from different family groups and increase social cohesion. This can be done through developing relationships with groups enabling different points of view to be heard and valued.     

Promotion of rural environmental sanitation through traditional financial intermediaries

The health problems of rural inhabitants in a developing countrysuch as Nigeria are important to policy-makers and everyoneconcerned with health care delivery for three basic reasons:the bulk of the population lives in rural areas, despite thehigh rate of urbanization; the rural population is characterizedby ignorance and by poverty; and the attitudes of these peopleare mainly influenced by age-old cultural beliefs and values.These characteristics constitute economic, social and culturalconstraints on the delivery of health care. On the other hand, rural people can and should be seen as atremendous human resource potential capable of being mobilizedand utilized for socioeconomic development—and even moreso for disease control, disease prevention and health promotion.In addition, some of the traditional rural institutions arepotential administrative frameworks that may be adopted or adaptedto improve people's health. This article proposes the use of traditional financial intermediariesto finance rural environmental sanitation projects. It identifiesa link between rural environmental sanitation and traditionalfinancial intermediaries, and describes how this link can beput into practice in the rural population. Traditional or informal financial intermediaries are socioeconomicinstitutions that have a long history among the various ethnicgroups in Nigeria as well as other west African countries. Theyare savings and credit institutions voluntarily organized bypeople forming associations. There are many variants, but theone I describe here is the rotating savings system, one of thefew traditional systems that has survived Western influence.People still organize themselves today into rotating savingssocieties in both rural and urban areas; they use their savingsfor various ventures, including funerals, child-naming ceremonies,the expansion of commercial activities, farming, and marriages. The hypothesis of this article is that the rotating savingssystem can be adapted for a specific purpose—in this case,the promotion of rural environmental sanitation. In developingthis theme, I broadly review the health problems in rural areasand how they are related to conditions of housing and environmentalsanitation. The principles of primary health care, the currentfocus of Nigeria's health policy, are described, emphasizingthe principle of self-reliance, on which community participationdepends. The rotating savings system as a traditional financialintermediary is described in terms of principles, roles, organizationand operation. I will then describe a possible link betweenrural environmental sanitation and traditional financial intermediariesand propose how this can be put into operation.     

From selfish individualism to citizenship: Avoiding health Economics’ reputed ‘dead end’

Recent interpretations of citizenship are firmly rooted in the value of social membership and social participation. Citizens are described as having a moral right to draw upon the support of the community, but at the same time have a responsibility to contribute to the provision of social services such as health care. In contrast, contemporary health economics has been criticised for taking a narrow and individualistic view of human behaviour. This paper examines the extent to which economic theory and practice have been developed to accommodate a more ‘civic’ view, namely, the notions of mutual concern for community members, social participation and social rights. It is argued that because the provision of health care is often linked to feelings of compassion and social responsibility and not just to individual well-being, this sort of insight may enrich economic analysis and, in turn, provide a way around health economics’ reputed ‘dead end’.     

社区卫生服务管理体制面临的挑战分析——基于六城区的抽样调查

目的：分析我国社区卫生服务管理体制面临的挑战。方法：运用焦点组访谈和个人深入访谈的方法收集六城区有关社区卫生服务管理体制的资料,并运用归纳总结的方法对定性资料进行分析。结果：区级政府作为举办主体理顺社区卫生服务管理体制存在困难;各级政府的事权与财力不相适应;卫生部门与其他部门的跨部门合作机制有待加强;社管中心成立的必要性与功能定位仍然悬而未决;如何管理社会资本举办的社区卫生机构有待进一步探索;缺乏居民参与管理的有效途径。建议：理顺政府相关部门之间的关系,促进财力与事权相匹配;建立有效的跨部门合作机制;制定和完善鼓励社会资本发展社区卫生的相关政策;进一步探索成立社管中心的可行性与必要性;探索和完善居民参与管理的有效途径。     

Environmental barriers and supports to the health, function, and participation of people with developmental and intellectual disabilities: report from the State of the Science in Aging with Developmental Disabilities Conference

BackgroundThis article summarizes the proceedings of the Environmental Barriers and Supports to Health, Function and Participation Work Group that was part of the “State of the Science in Aging with Developmental Disabilities: Charting Lifespan Trajectories and Supportive Environments for Healthy Living” symposium. The aim was to provide a research and policy agenda targeting the assessment and evaluation of environmental factors influencing the health, function, and participation of people with developmental and intellectual disabilities (I/DD).MethodsKey environmental areas addressed were (1) the built environment including homes and communities; (2) assistive and information technology design and use; (3) social environment factors and interventions; and (4) environmental access and participation policies, legislation, and system change implications.ResultsThe group identified gaps in knowledge and priorities for future research, including (1) multivariate analyses of attributes of the built environment; (2) large-scale intervention trials of assistive and information technology use with people with cognitive disabilities; (3) development and testing of social, peer-mentoring, and self-management interventions as applied to people with I/DD; (4) incorporation of environmental health research methodologies, such as GIS mapping into I/DD research; (5) participatory action approaches that actively include people with I/DD in the research process; and (6) rigorous examination of the impact of legislative and policy initiatives related to least restrictive community living and participation with people with I/DD.ConclusionFuture research and policy initiatives should focus on examining how the environment (build, technological, social, and system level) influence community living and participation of people with intellectual disabilities.     

中国城乡基层医生转诊行为及其影响因素研究

目的：分析中国城乡基层医生的转诊行为及其影响因素。方法：利用2016年中国基层医疗服务能力及质量综合评价调查项目横断面数据,以社区卫生服务中心和乡镇卫生院两类机构的医生作为研究对象。通过三水平随机截距Logistic回归模型分析影响医生转诊行为的主要因素。结果：被调查医生中有84.01%曾向上级机构转诊过患者,38.72%曾接受过上级机构下转的患者。乡镇卫生院医生向上转诊患者的行为比社区卫生服务中心医生更容易发生（OR=2.24,P<0.001）。男性、有执业资格、可以常规使用电子信息系统对基层医生参与双向转诊有正向影响。高学历、高职称对社区卫生服务中心医生,高龄对乡镇卫生院医生参与双向转诊有促进作用。基层与二级机构住院报销比例差距增加以及乡镇卫生院万元以上设备数量增加都对医生接受上级机构转诊患者有促进作用。医生转诊行为的变异归属于医生个体的部分和归属于机构水平的部分分别为26.9%~33.3%和48.0%~59.9%。结论：实现双向转诊的关键在于提高基层医疗卫生机构的服务能力和基层的人力水平。     

Clean air works: the Boston experience.

NACCHO supports local public health agencies across the country in their efforts to implement smoke-free workplace ordinances in their communities. As the national voice of local public health, NACCHO also strives to strengthen and improve the health of our nation's communities through the tobacco prevention and control project. NACCHO provides a variety of tobacco-related tools and resources through its Web site (www.naccho.org), including the Tobacco Prevention and Control Learner's Guide; Smoke-free Policy Guidelines, a series of fact sheets co-authored by the Association of State and Territorial Health Officials (ASTHO) and the National Association of Local Board of Health (NALBOH); the Model Practices Database; Program and Funding Guidelines for Comprehensive Local Tobacco Control Programs, a document outlining the 7 components of a good tobacco control program; resources on social justice; NACCHO's Foundation Funding Guide, an online resource for local public health associations looking for grants from foundations; and links to other organizations. NACCHO also works to influence the development of integrated tobacco-related policy initiatives and their enforcement at the national and local level.Featured in this issue of the Journal of Public Health Management and Practice is an example of a success story of one of NACCHO's members in the area of smoke-free ordinances.     

Strengthening community mental health competence—A realist informed case study from Dehradun,North India

Few accounts exist of programmes in low‐ and middle‐income countries seeking to strengthen community knowledge and skills in mental health. This case study uses a realist lens to explore how a mental health project in a context with few mental health services, strengthened community mental health competence by increasing community knowledge, creating safer social spaces and engaging partnerships for action. We used predominantly qualitative methods to explore relationships between context, interventions, mechanisms and outcomes in the “natural setting” of a community‐based mental health project in Dehradun district, Uttarakhand, North India. Qualitative data came from focus group discussions, participant observation and document reviews of community teams' monthly reports on changes in behaviour, attitudes and relationships among stakeholder groups. Data analysis initially involved thematic analysis of three domains: knowledge, safe social spaces and partnerships for action. By exploring patterns within the identified themes for each domain, we were able to infer the mechanisms and contextual elements contributing to observed outcomes. Community knowledge was effectively increased by allowing communities to absorb new understanding into pre‐existing social and cultural constructs. Non‐hierarchical informal community conversations allowed “organic” integration of unfamiliar biomedical knowledge into local explanatory frameworks. People with psycho‐social disability and caregivers found increased social support and inclusion by participating in groups. Building skills in respectful communication through role plays and reflexive discussion increased the receptivity of social environments to people with psycho‐social disabilities participation, thereby creating safe social spaces. Facilitating social networks through groups increases women's capacity for collective action to promote mental health. In summary, locally appropriate methods contribute most to learning, stigma reduction and help‐seeking. The complex social change progress was patchy and often slow. This study demonstrates a participatory, iterative, reflexive project design which is generating evidence indicating substantial improvements in community mental health competence.     

中国社区卫生服务机构与医院协调发展战略

根据国务院要“构建城市医院与社区卫生服务机构分工合理、配合密切、互为补充、双向转诊的新型城市医疗服务体系”的意见，笔者在分析医疗机构为构建社会主义和谐社会作出了巨大的成就，主要表现在五大方面成绩的基础上，探讨了医疗卫生事业突出的问题。并就社区卫生服务的成绩和问题进行了讨论。认为中国卫生事业的发展要在医院和社区两个方面进行协同。笔者根据研究的结果创建了医院和社区改革可持续发展要考虑的模式一“54321”模式，基本含义是：5定：首诊医院（社区）、基本医疗项目质量和费用、公共卫生项目质量和费用、医疗保险费用（健康保险）、服务人群。4付：政府、保险、医院（社区）、个人方付费。3督：政府、居民、社会（第三方）。2转：首诊医院（社区）和医院双向转诊。1考：1年1次考核。     

The untold story: how the health care systems in developing countries contribute to maternal mortality.

This article attempts to put together evidence from maternal mortality studies in developing countries of how an inadequate health care system characterized by misplaced priorities contributes to high maternal mortality rates. Inaccessibility of essential health information to the women most affected, and the physical as well as economic and sociocultural distance separating health services from the vast majority of women, are only part of the problem. Even when the woman reaches a health facility, there are a number of obstacles to her receiving adequate and appropriate care. These are a result of failures in the health services delivery system: the lack of minimal life-saving equipment at the first referral level; the lack of equipment, personnel, and know-how even in referral hospitals; and worst of all, faulty patient management. Prevention of maternal deaths requires fundamental changes not only in resource allocation, but in the very structures of health services delivery. These will have to be fought for as part of a wider struggle for equity and social justice.     

公立医院与社区卫生服务机构双向转诊机制的探讨

目的探讨公立医院与社区卫生服务机构双向转诊机制,对中国目前的转诊机制提出对策和展望。方法对双向转诊的发展、现状进行了分析,总结了当前中国双向转诊所面临的困难、不足,结合德国、美国、英国在转诊方面的理论与实践方面的先进经验,通过查阅文献、实际调查、个别访谈等方法进行。结果公立医院与社区卫生服务机构双向转诊机制尚未有效建立,需要尽快形成共识,落实实施。结论公立医院与社区卫生服务机构转诊中出现的执行困难问题不是独立的卫生事件,而是一个综合性的社会问题。