Risk factors for the development of accommodative esotropia following treatment for infantile esotropia.

PURPOSE: One aim of the study was to determine whether accommodative esotropia after surgical alignment in infantile esotropia occurs because a pre-existing accommodative component is unmasked at the time of surgery or whether it occurs as a sequela of infantile esotropia. A second aim of the present study was to examine risk factors for accommodative esotropia after surgery for infantile esotropia. METHODS: A total of 80 consecutive patients who were enrolled in a prospective study of infantile esotropia had been followed for more than 4 years and had achieved orthoposition were included. Twelve potential risk factors were examined: age at onset, initial esodeviation, initial refractive error, age at alignment, delay in alignment, presurgical glasses, amblyopia, additional surgical procedures, unstable alignment, increase in hypermetropia, peripheral fusion, and stereopsis. Mantel-Haenszel odds ratios were computed for each factor and were corrected to relative risks. RESULTS: Overall, 48 of 80 children (60%) developed accommodative esotropia at a mean age of 33 months. Increasing hypermetropia, delay in alignment, and poor stereopsis posed significant risks for accommodative esotropia. The remaining 9 factors were not associated with increased risk for accommodative esotropia. CONCLUSIONS: Accommodative esotropia is unlikely to be a pre-existing condition in most cases because the mean age of onset was 23 months postoperative and the prevalence of preoperative hypermetropia greater than +3.00 D was low. Both delay in alignment and stereopsis risk factors may reflect compromised binocular sensory status that allows accommodative esotropia to occur at low to moderate levels of hypermetropia. Identification of children treated for infantile esotropia who are at risk for accommodative esotropia may allow for prevention or early treatment.     

Changes in deviation following correction of hyperopia in children with fully refractive accommodative esotropia

Changes in deviation may occur following the correction of hyperopia in children with accommodative esotropia. We analyzed possible factors involving the development of changes in deviation. We examined 49 children (23 boys and 26 girls) who had fully refractive accommodative esotropia at the age of 3 or 4 years. All children wore glasses to correct the fully cycloplegic refractive errors. At the age of 10 or 11 years, 28 (57.1%) of these children had good alignment, 12 (24.5%) developed partial accommodative esotropia and 9 (18.4%) developed consecutive exotropia. The age at onset of esotropia, age at initial visit, and refraction, deviation and presence of stereopsis, as determined by the Titmus test using a fly at the initial visit, were similar among the three groups. In the consecutive exotropia group, amblyopia at the initial visit was significantly higher (89%) than that of the good alignment group (50%). The age at the start of the correction, and the refraction, amblyopia and presence of fusion (10 or 11 years) were almost equal among the three groups. We conclude that some children with fully refractive accommodative esotropia associated with amblyopia at the age of 3 or 4 years may be predisposed to developing consecutive exotropia.     

调节性内斜视的治疗

目的探讨与调节有关的内斜视矫正规律.方法随机选择56例有调节性因素的内斜视进行散瞳检影、戴镜和综合弱视治疗,首次、治疗后6个月、12个月和24个月检影验光1次,检查内斜矫正度.结果治疗6月后内斜度数基本稳定.结论与调节性有关的内斜视戴镜治疗6个月后,即可考虑手术矫正非调节部分内斜视.     

Relation between preoperative hyperopia and surgical outcome in infantile esotropia

AIM: To evaluate the relation between preoperative hyperopia and surgical outcomes of infantile esotropia in patients younger than 24 months of age. METHODS: Medical records of patients who underwent bilateral medial rectus muscle recession for infantile esotropia between November 1, 2002 and December 1, 2011 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients were divided into two groups according to the degree of preoperative hyperopia. Group I had less than +3.0 diopter (D) of hyperopia and group II had between +3.0 and +5.0 D of hyperopia. Postoperative alignments were evaluated 1wk, 3, 6mo, and 1y after surgery. Following the 1-year postoperative visit, patients were monitored yearly. Relationships between preoperative factors including hyperopia and postoperative outcomes were evaluated. RESULTS: Forty-six patients were included, with 33 patients in group I and 13 patients in group II. The preoperative mean refractive error was +0.88 D in group I and +3.45 D in group II. Surgical outcomes were not significantly different between groups at any postoperative time point examined. Cumulative probability of surgical success, prevalence of inferior oblique overaction, dissociated vertical deviation, and re-operation rate were not significantly different between groups. CONCLUSION: Preoperative moderate hyperopia (less than +5.0 D) did not affect the surgical outcome of infantile esotropia. Therefore, the surgical correction of esotropia should be considered when the angle of esodeviation is unchanged following hyperopia correction, even in children with moderate hyperopia.     

儿童部分调节性内斜视的治疗及调整缝线在手术中的应用

目的 探讨儿童部分调节性内斜视的术前治疗、手术时机与手术量以及调整缝线在治疗中的应用。设计 回顾性病例系列。研究对象 北京儿童医院眼科接受手术治疗的部分调节性内斜视患者30例。方法 对手术治疗的部分调节性内斜视患者的临床资料进行回顾性分析。患儿术前矫正屈光异常,观察斜视度稳定,并予适当弱视治疗,在双眼视力相当的情况下进行手术,按照裸眼和戴镜斜视度的平均值设计手术量。术中常规使用调整缝线技术,术后早期依据眼位情况决定是否需要调整。术后随访6~15个月。观察眼位及双眼视功能。主要指标 术后眼位、双眼视功能、眼位调整情况。结果 有3例患儿进行了眼位调整,均为过矫,避免了二次手术。末次随访时30例患者中26例（87%）眼位在正位~+8△之间,4例（13%）眼位+10△~+15△。术前能合作行双眼视功能检查者19例,有双眼视功能者2例（11%）。末次随访时能合作双眼视功能检查者21例,有双眼视功能者15例（71%）。结论  内斜视伴有调节因素时应及时全矫配镜,在残余斜视度稳定、双眼矫正视力基本相当后应尽早手术。手术设计根据戴镜与裸眼视近的平均斜视度,调整缝线有助于保证术后早期的眼位满意,降低了二次手术的风险。（眼科, 2013,22: 121-123）     

Outcome in refractive accommodative esotropia

AIM: To examine outcome among children with refractive accommodative esotropia. METHODS: Children with accommodative esotropia associated with hyperopia were included in the study. The features studied were ocular alignment, amblyopia, and the response to treatment, binocular single vision, requirement for surgery, and the change in refraction with age. RESULTS: 103 children with refractive accommodative esotropia were identified. Mean follow up was 4.5 years (range 2-9.5 years). 41 children (39.8%) were fully accommodative (no manifest deviation with full hyperopic correction). The remaining 62 children (60.2%) were partially accommodative. At presentation 61.2% of children were amblyopic in one eye decreasing to 15.5% at the most recent examination. Stereopsis was demonstrated in 89.3% of children at the most recent examination. Mean cycloplegic refraction (dioptres, spherical equivalent) remained stable throughout the follow up period. The mean change in refraction per year was 0.005 dioptres (D) in right eyes (95% CL -0. 0098 to 0.02) and 0.001 D in left eyes (95% CL -0.018 to 0.021). No patients were able to discard their glasses and maintain alignment. CONCLUSIONS: Most children with refractive accommodative esotropia have an excellent outcome in terms of visual acuity and binocular single vision. Current management strategies for this condition result in a marked reduction in the prevalence of amblyopia compared with the prevalence at presentation. The degree of hyperopia, however, remains unchanged with poor prospects for discontinuing glasses wear. The possibility that long term full time glasses wear impedes emmetropisation must be considered. It is also conceivable, however, that these children may behave differently with normal and be predestined to remain hyperopic.     

Is it possible to differentiate early-onset accommodative esotropia from early-onset essential esotropia?

PURPOSE: To determine the frequency of > or =2.50 diopter (D) hyperopia in infantile esotropia with onset up to the age of 6 months and by evaluating the treatment results of these cases retrospectively, to find the factors that may help to differentiate early-onset accommodative esotropia from early-onset essential esotropia. METHODS: The charts of 256 patients with infantile esotropia were reviewed. Thirtyseven cases, with hyperopia of > or =2.50 D, no other systemic and neurologic disease, and at least 1 year of follow-up, were included in this study. The age at the start of therapy, refractive error, deviation angle, type of therapy (antiaccommodative therapy, surgery) and the presence of amblyopia, latent nystagmus, inferior oblique overaction, dissociated vertical deviation and cross-fixation were recorded for each case. RESULTS: The prevalence of high hyperopia was found to be 14.4% (37/256) in infantile esotropia. In 18 of the cases (48.6%), antiaccommodative therapy alone was found to be adequate (Group I). In the remaining 19, although antiaccommodative therapy was found to decrease the deviation angle significantly (P<0.001), surgery was also required (Group II). Groups were compared with respect to age at the initial examination, refractive error, deviation angle, presence of amblyopia, anisometropia, and inferior oblique overaction, but no factor could be determined to predict the pure refractive ones (P>0.05). Essential infantile esotropia-associated findings did not help because they are rarely evident at the time of initial diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Half of the high hyperopic infantile esotropes could be corrected fully by antiaccommodative therapy alone, while the remaining ones could also benefit significantly. It is strongly recommended to try spectacles at first in the treatment of infantile esotropia with hyperopia > or =2.5 D.     

Management of infantile esotropia

The population of patients with infantile esotropia is etiologically and neuroanatomically heterogeneous, and major advances in management will probably require more accurate subgroup delineation. Amblyopia is relatively common in patients with infantile esotropia. It should always be suspected and, when found, should be vigorously treated. Present methods of amblyopia detection and evaluation in young children are still imperfect. Most clinical evidence suggests rather strongly that sensory and motor functions are more nearly normal if alignment (within 10 prism diopters of orthotropia) is attained within the first 2 years of life. Whether alignment obtained within the first year of life provides higher grades of binocular vision is less certain. Virtually all patients with infantile esotropia fail to develop normal binocular vision. Central scotomas are almost always identifiable, even in patients with optimal motor alignment and with the highest levels of binocular vision. Past surgical protocols have tended to produce an excess of under-corrections. More recent surgical protocols are more generous in terms of millimeters of surgery per prism diopter of deviation. Higher cure rates are now being reported. Patients who are successfully aligned early in life still need careful postoperative monitoring for amblyopia, nystagmus, inferior oblique overactions, dissociated vertical divergence, and accommodative esotropia. These patients require frequent follow-up visits until they reach the age of approximately 9 years.     

儿童部分调节性内斜视的手术探讨

目的探讨儿童部分调节性内斜视的手术时机，手术量。方法对35例部分词节性内斜视的患儿戴全矫眼镜半年以后，手术矫治与调节因素无关的非调节因素所致的内斜视。手术量按裸眼和戴镜后斜视度的平均值设计。结果35例中．眼位矫正满意32例占91．43％，良好3例占8．57％；功能治愈有立体视19例占54．29％。结论儿童部分调节性内斜视，其由解剖因素所致的斜视需手术矫正。当患儿戴全矫眼镜半年眼位仍不能恢复正位时，可尽早手术矫治其残存的内斜度，手术量按裸眼与戴镜平均斜视度设计，术后由于调节因素所致内斜仍需配镜矫正。     

Congenital esotropia

Congenital esotropia represents the most common type of strabismus. Its pathogenesis, however, remains uncertain. It is typically characterized as a large angle, constant esotropia with onset during the first six months of life. Associated clinical findings include normal refractive errors for age, amblyopia, dissociated vertical deviation, inferior oblique muscle overaction and nystagmus. It must be distinguished from Duane's retraction syndrome, Moebius syndrome, nystagmus blockage syndrome, and early onset accommodative esotropia, as well as other causes of esotropia in infancy. The surgical management may involve recession of both medial recti muscles, unilateral recession of a medial rectus muscle and a resection of a lateral rectus muscle or three or four muscle surgery.     

Stereopsis and long-term stability of alignment in esotropia.

PURPOSE: Recent studies of infantile and accommodative esotropia (ET) have focused on stereoacuity as a final outcome measurement for judging the success or failure of treatment. The purpose of the present study was to extend this approach by evaluating whether the presence of stereopsis developing immediately after surgical alignment or optical correction plays a role in maintenance of long-term alignment. METHODS: Random-dot stereoacuity was assessed within 3 months of initial surgical alignment in 70 children with infantile ET and within 3 months of initial optical correction in 66 children with accommodative ET. At > or = 5 years of age, adverse outcomes were assessed including loss of alignment, amblyopia, and nil stereopsis. Risk-factor analysis was used to evaluate whether early nil stereopsis increased the risk for subsequent adverse outcomes. RESULTS: In the infantile ET cohort, early nil stereopsis was associated with a 3.6 times (95% confidence interval [CI] 2.4 to 4.1) greater risk of surgery for recurrent ET or consecutive exotropia and a 4.2 times (95% CI 3.3 to 4.4) greater risk for nil stereopsis at > or = 5 years of age. In the accommodative ET cohort, early nil stereopsis was associated with a 17.4 times (95% CI 3.3 to 32.2) greater risk of surgery for ET and a 32.2 times (95% CI 15.8 to 35.6) greater risk for nil stereopsis at > or = 5 years of age. CONCLUSION: Treatment protocols designed to optimize stereoacuity outcomes promote long-term stability of alignment.     

儿童部分调节性内斜视的手术矫正与立体视觉

为探讨儿童部分调节性内斜视的手术时机，观察了７８例儿童部分调节性内斜视矫正术后的立体视恢复情况；分析各种因素对其立体视恢复的影响。结果：７８例中，５５例术后获得立体视，功能治愈率为７０．５％，且术后立体视的恢复率与术前相比，差异非常显著（ｐ＜０．０１）；早期手术组及具有融合功能组的立体视的恢复率显著高于较晚手术组及无融合功能组（ｐ＜０．０１）；发病越早，术后建立立体视的预后越差。结论：儿童部分调节性内斜视与部分调节因素有关，其由于解剖因素所引起的斜视需手术矫治。从立体视恢复上考虑，当患儿全矫配镜半年眼位仍不能正位时，应尽早手术矫正其残存的内斜度。术中应根据戴全矫眼镜后的眼位决定手术量。术后由于调节因素所致的内斜视仍需配镜矫正。     

Follow-up monitoring of accommodative esotropia.

PURPOSE: To ascertain an examination interval that will not increase the risk of untimely detection of decompensation of accommodative esotropia whether or not initial nonoperative treatment must be supplemented. METHODS: The records of 63 patients with accommodative esotropia examined at 3- to 6-month intervals were reviewed for the occurrence of decompensation, changes in refraction, and the need for increased correction of hyperopia or the addition of bifocals. RESULTS: Decompensation, which was not associated with substantial refractive changes toward or away from emmetropia, occurred in 11 patients. No instance of decompensation occurred in the first 12 months of observation. Although 7 of these decompensated patients were among the 18 (28.6%) requiring supplemental nonoperative treatment, their mean annual refractive change did not differ significantly from the 11 patients who did not decompensate. Eight (18.6%) of 43 patients first controlled earlier than age 48 months later decompensated; 3 (15.0%) of 20 patients with later onset reached this outcome. CONCLUSIONS: The monitoring of controlled accommodative esotropia at intervals of 9 to 12 months is adequate for most patients, at least over the first 2 years, with the exception of those requiring treatment for associated conditions such as amblyopia. Refractive error changes and the need for supplemental treatment after initial control are not prominently associated with decompensation. Age of onset of accommodative esotropia earlier or later than 48 months did not influence rapidity of decompensation.     

Use of atropine to predict the accommodative component in esotropia with hypermetropia

This cohort study included children with esotropia and hypermetropia of ≥ +2.0 diopters (D). The deviation was measured at presentation, under atropine cycloplegia and 3 months after full refractive correction. Of 44 children with a mean age of 5.2 ± 2.4 years, 25 were males. Eighteen (41%) had fully refractive accommodative esotropia (RAE), 10 (23%) had partial accommodative esotropia (PAE), and 5 (11%) had nonaccommodative esotropia (NAE). Eleven (25%) had convergence excess (CE). Under cycloplegia, all with RAE and RAE with CE had orthotropia. There was no significant change in the deviation in the patients with NAE. The deviation under cycloplegia and that with full refractive correction in PAE and PAE with CE (with +3.0 D addition) were not different. The intraclass correlation coefficient for deviation under cycloplegia and after full refractive correction (+3.0 D addition for CE) was 0.89. It was concluded that ocular deviation under cycloplegia can help to predict the accommodative component in esotropia with hypermetropia.     

Factors influencing stereoacuity in refractive accommodative esotropia

BACKGROUND: We aimed to investigate factors that promote binocular sensory function in patients with refractive accommodative esotropia (RAE) who have successful optical alignment. METHODS: Charts of 64 patients with RAE were retrospectively reviewed. Clinical factors examined included onset age of RAE, duration of misalignment, history of misalignment in family members, amblyopia, amblyopia treatment, refractive error, anisometropia, ocular movement disorders, visual acuity level, and the presence of intermittent or constant misalignment after optical correction of the hyperopic refractive error. RESULTS: Thirty-two patients (50%) were able to see test figures on any plates of TNO test and were considered to have stereoscopic vision. Intermittent or constant misalignment detected at any visit was found to affect stereoacuity adversely in patients with RAE. INTERPRETATION: Despite successful opitical alignment, as many as 50% of patients with RAE had anomalous binocular sensory function. An intermittent or constant eye misalignment poses a risk for anomalous binocular vision. These finding could promote prompt and appropriate optical corrections in order to minimize the adverse effects of intermittent or constant eye misalignment on binocular sensory function in patients with RAE.     

屈光性调节性内斜视临床观察

目的探讨屈光性调节性内斜视的临床特点,弱视治疗结果及屈光度变化。方法 219例屈光性调节性内斜视患者,观察其眼位、立体视以及初次戴镜年龄、屈光度、弱视程度对弱视疗效的影响,并进行分析。结果 219例患者中,戴镜前仅7例Titmus3000″,弱视213例,216例在配戴全矫眼镜后内斜视消失,经过戴镜及综合弱视训练,弱视基本治愈180例,进步26例,7例无效,基本治愈率88.97%。Titmus<800″216例。结论屈光性调节性内斜视要早发现早治疗,坚持长期配戴矫正眼镜,综合治疗弱视,可获得良好的临床效果。     

Characteristics of early onset esotropia

Some 115 patients with a reported onset of esotropia within the first six months of life were studied retrospectively to assess ocular findings and the evolution of any changes with time. All patients had been treated by one ophthalmologist and one orthoptist since 1972.
Of the 115 patients, 27% had an accommodative element associated with the esotropia. Patients with an accommodative esotropia had higher levels of hypermetropia when compared to the non-accommodative group, but there were no other distinguishing characteristics.
The groups exhibited a large variation in angle size, ranging from four to 45 degrees at the initial visit. The presence of fusion, amblyopia and the degree of hypermetropia had no significant effect on the course of the squint. Amblyopia was noted in 67% of cases and appeared to stabilise at a later-than-expected age, with 66% of patients with ambylopia stabilising between eight and 11 years. Surgical intervention had no effect on the incidence of amblyopia at the initial or final visits.     

Early-onset refractive accommodative esotropia.

INTRODUCTION: We studied the natural history of pure refractive accommodative esotropia after spectacle correction in patients with onset before 1 year old to determine whether their outcomes and characteristics were different from those of patients with more typical age at onset of refractive accommodative esotropia. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the charts of 17 children with onset of refractive accommodative esotropia before 1 year old. Records of 26 children with onset after 2 years old were reviewed as controls. RESULTS: The mean ages at diagnosis were 9 months and 48 months for the study and control groups, respectively. All 17 study patients and all 26 control patients were initially well aligned with spectacles at distance and near. Follow-up averaged 34 months for study patients and 41 months for control patients. Three study patients (17.6%) and 1 control patient (3.8%) had eventual deterioration and required strabismus surgery (P = .28). None of the study patients developed amblyopia, whereas 42% of control patients did (P = .001). Seven of 15 (47%) of the study patients with known birth history were born prematurely, whereas only 3 of 24 (12%) control patients were born prematurely (P = .03). CONCLUSIONS: Refractive accommodative esotropia was diagnosed at as early as and age 4 months. Prematurity appeared to be a risk factor. Amblyopia was not detected in any patient with early-onset refractive accommodative esotropia. Treatment with full hyperopic spectacle correction led to long-term stable alignment, with relatively few patients requiring surgery.     

Risk factors for accommodative esotropia among hypermetropic children

PURPOSE: Identification of risk factors for accommodative esotropia may help to determine which children with hyperopia may benefit from early spectacle correction or preventive therapy. METHODS: Participants in the family history study were 95 consecutive patients, aged 18 to 60 months, with accommodative esotropia. Participants in the binocular sensory function study were a subgroup of 41 children enrolled in the family history study within 1 month of onset, while the esodeviation was still intermittent. Participants in the hypermetropia study were 345 consecutive patients, ages 12 months to 8 years, with refractive error of +2.00 D or greater and no esodeviation before age 12 months. RESULTS: In the family history study, 23% of children with accommodative esotropia had an affected first-degree relative, and 91% had at least one affected relative. In the binocular sensory function study, random-dot stereoacuity was abnormal in 41% of children, whereas an abnormal motion VEP, Worth 4-dot, or positive 4-PD base-out prism responses were present in 4% or less of the children. In the hypermetropia study, patients with a mean spherical equivalent of < +3.00 D and significant anisometropia had a 7.8-fold increased risk for accommodative esotropia over nonanisometropic patients. CONCLUSIONS: A positive family history, subnormal random-dot stereopsis, and hypermetropic anisometropia each pose a significant risk for the development of accommodative esotropia. Assessment of these risk factors in conjunction with refractive screening should help to identify those children who are most likely to benefit from early spectacle correction or preventive treatment.     

Childhood esotropia

PURPOSE: To review the most recent studies on childhood esotropia, and to summarize recent changes in treatment approach. RECENT FINDINGS: Constant, large-angle esotropia present in the first few months of life may be suitable for early surgery. Earlier surgical intervention, within the first several months of onset, is associated with better sensory outcomes. Similar findings are true for accommodative esotropia; children treated within the first 4 months of constant esotropia have better outcomes. Refractive surgery has been used successfully in adult patients to treat accommodative esotropia. SUMMARY: New developments pertaining to infantile esotropia have helped clarify the pathophysiology of the condition and the best treatment approaches. Abnormal binocular visual input early in life contributes to poor outcomes in both infantile and accommodative esotropia.