Sexual Function of Women With Deep Endometriosis Before and After Surgery: A Prospective Study

BackgroundDeep endometriosis (DE) may significantly affect women's quality of life. Limited data exists on the effect of surgery on the several domains of sexual function.AimTo prospectively compare various domains of sexual function before and after laparoscopic surgery for DE.MethodsA prospective observational cohort study in a tertiary university-affiliated referral center. Patients with suspected DE who were planned to undergo laparoscopic surgery completed the Female Sexual Function Index questionnaire before surgery. The same questionnaire was completed by the participants 6 weeks, 6 months, and 12 months after surgery. Rate of sexual dysfunction over time was compared using multilevel logistic regression. Summary scores were then compared at each time point to the corresponding score before surgery using multilevel linear regression. Multivariable analysis was performed of potential confounders.OutcomesChange in desire, arousal, orgasm, lubrication, satisfaction and pain summary scores as well as in the full-scale score between before and after surgery.ResultsWe followed 149 patients with surgically confirmed DE. Sexual dysfunction rate as per the full-scale score was 75.5% before surgery and remained over 60% to 12 months after. The full-scale sexual function score improved at 6 (change in score = 2.8 ± 9.5, P = .004) and 12 months (change in score = 2.1 ± 9.9, P = .03). None of the summary scores improved at 6 weeks. Desire score (P < .001), arousal score (P = .02), and pain score (P = .01) improved at 6 months. Desire score (P = .03) and pain score (P = .01) also improved at 12 months, as compared to before surgery. On multivariable multilevel analysis, scores before surgery significantly contributed to the scores after surgery (P < .001).Clinical translationWhile sexual function improved after surgery, dysfunction rate remained substantial. Proper preoperative counseling should address sexual function measures and clinical and research attention should be given to seek ways to further reduce sexual dysfunction.Strengths and limitationsThe main strengths of our study are the prospective design, the relatively long follow-up and the use of a detailed validated questionnaire allowing assessment of a large variety of clinically relevant sexual function domains and scores as well as a full-scale score. Among our limitations are the lower response rate at 12 months and the limited generalizability as this is a single center study.ConclusionSexual function is a major and often under reported domain of quality of life. Further research is needed to identify the specific populations who may improve, not change or experience deterioration in their sexual functioning after surgery.Dior UP, Reddington C, Cheng C, et al. Sexual Function of Women With Deep Endometriosis Before and After Surgery: A Prospective Study. J Sex Med 2022;19:280–289.     

Impact of Endometriosis on Fatigue and Productivity Impairment in a Cross-Sectional Survey of Canadian Women

ObjectiveTo evaluate fatigue burden and productivity impairments in Canadian women with a self-reported diagnosis of endometriosis (DxE).MethodsFrom December 2018 to January 2019, Canadian women aged 18?49 years completed an online survey assessing fatigue via the Patient-Reported Outcomes Measurement Information System (PROMIS) Fatigue Short Form 6a questionnaire. Fatigue T-scores were compared between women with and without a DxE, by age and endometriosis symptom severity, using t tests. Women with a DxE completed the Work Productivity and Activity Impairment – Specific Health Problem (WPAI-SHP) questionnaire. The effects of age and hallmark endometriosis symptoms on productivity impairments were assessed via analysis of variance.ResultsSurvey data included 2004 women with and 26 528 women without a DxE. Mean fatigue T-scores were 58.5 ± 10.1 in women with a DxE and 59.2 ± 10.1 in women with hallmark endometriosis symptoms (i.e., menstrual or non-menstrual pelvic pain/cramping, dyspareunia) versus 55.2 ± 9.4 in women without a DxE (both P < 0.001). Women with moderate or severe endometriosis symptoms had a mean T-score of 61.2 ± 9.4 versus 55.9 ± 10.1 for women with mild symptoms (P < 0.001). Women with moderate or severe hallmark endometriosis symptoms had mean T-scores of 59.6–62.9 versus 57.0–58.2 for women with mild or no symptoms (all comparisons P < 0.01). Women with a DxE reported 17.1% of work time missed, 41.8% impaired work ability, 46.5% overall work impairment, and 41.4% activity impairment per the WPAI-SHP. Women with a DxE aged 30–34 and 35–39 years consistently experienced the greatest effects of fatigue and productivity impairments.ConclusionsCanadian women with a DxE experience a substantial fatigue burden and significant productivity impairments.     

Clinical Conundrum: A 33-Year-Old With Pain Post-Orgasm and a History of Endometriosis

A 33-year-old with a history of endometriosis presented with pain post-orgasm, accompanied by breakthrough bleeding, nausea, sweatiness, and exhaustion. History and examination suggested a gynaecologic component, likely related to the uterus itself. After several therapeutic trials, a clinical response was obtained with the use of a gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonist, elagolix. The case is discussed with respect to dysorgasmia and post-orgasm illness syndrome. Post-orgasm pain in women has not been well studied, and it is recommended that such periorgasm phenomena be the topic of future research.     

TWEAK在子宫内膜异位症在位和异位内膜上的表达

目的:探讨肿瘤坏死因子样凋亡的微弱诱导剂(TWEAK)在子宫内膜异位症(EMs)发病的关系。方法:采用实时定量逆转录-聚合酶链反应(Real-time RT-PCR)和免疫组化、Western Blot方法检测EMs患者在位内膜、异位病灶中TWEAK mRNA和蛋白的表达,并与正常对照子宫内膜比较。结果:TWEAK蛋白表达于子宫内膜的腺上皮细胞和间质细胞的胞浆内。与正常对照组内膜和在位组内膜相比,TWEAK mRNA和蛋白在异位内膜上表达量下调(P<0.05),且无论是EMs在位内膜还是对照组内膜,其增生期TWEAK mRNA表达明显低于分泌期(P<0.05)。结论:TWEAK在子宫内膜中表达,表达量在分泌期明显升高。EMs患者异位子宫内膜TWEAK表达降低,可能导致子宫内膜细胞的凋亡水平下降,参与EMs的发生发展过程。     

Dienogest and the Risk of Endometriosis Recurrence Following Surgery: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Study ObjectiveTo determine whether dienogest therapy after endometriosis surgery reduces the risk of endometriosis recurrence compared with expectant management.Data SourcesOvid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, PubMed, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Web of Science, LILACS, clinicaltrials.gov, and International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number Registry were searched from inception to March 2019 for observational and randomized controlled trials.Methods of Study SelectionThe Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines were followed. Medical Subject Heading terms and keywords such as “dienogest,” “endometriosis,” and “recurrence” were used to identify relevant studies.Tabulation, Integration, and ResultsThe search yielded 328 studies, 10 of which were eligible for inclusion, representing 1184 patients treated with dienogest and 846 expectantly managed controls. Among these studies, 9 looked exclusively at endometrioma recurrence, whereas 1 used reappearance of symptoms as evidence of disease recurrence. Data on both incidence of and time to recurrence of endometriosis were extracted.The incidence rate of endometriosis recurrence in patients treated with dienogest was 2 per 100 women over a mean follow-up of 29 months (95% confidence interval [CI], 1.43–3.11) versus 29 per 100 women managed expectantly over a mean follow-up of 36 months (95% CI, 25.66–31.74). The likelihood of recurrence was significantly reduced with postoperative dienogest (log odds −1.96, CI, −2.53 to −1.38, p <.001).ConclusionPatients receiving dienogest after conservative surgery for endometriosis had significantly lower risk of postoperative disease recurrence than those who were expectantly managed.     

Comparison of Isolated Sciatic Nerve and Sacral Nerve Root Endometriosis: A Review of the Literature

ObjectiveThis review aimed to compare isolated sciatic and sacral nerve root endometriosis in terms of anatomic distribution, patients’ symptoms and history, diagnostics, treatments, and outcomes.Data SourceWe searched PubMed, MEDLINE, Web of Science, and Embase from inception to October 2021 using a combination of keywords including “sciatic nerve endometriosis,” “sacral nerve root endometriosis,” and associated Medical Subject Headings. Relevant publications and references were also checked for further articles.Methods of Study SelectionTwo independent researchers performed the study selection. We included all original research articles, case reports, and case series in English that reported on the isolated sciatic nerve and sacral nerve root endometriosis.Tabulation, Integration, and ResultsThe initial search identified 92 articles, and 40 articles, mostly case reports and case series, were included. The review included 362 patients: with 256 and 106 patients in the sacral and the sciatic groups, respectively. In both groups, most patients had right-sided endometriosis. In the sciatic group, most of the patients presented with foot drop, leg motor weakness, and sciatic dermatome hypoesthesia. The frequencies of all these symptoms were significantly higher in the sciatic group (all p <.001). By contrast, in the sacral group, most of patients presented with pudendal neuralgia (p <.001). Intraoperative, early, late, and 1-year postoperative complications did not differ significantly between the 2 groups.ConclusionThis study indicated that isolated sciatic and sacral nerve root endometrioses were more common on the right side. Laparoscopic surgery was more commonly performed over traditional open or transgluteal surgery techniques. Sacral nerve root endometriosis is often accompanied by deep infiltrating endometriosis. Magnetic resonance imaging and myelography may be useful diagnostic tools in the preoperative workup. There was usually no significant improvement after surgery in cases of isolated sciatic nerve endometriosis presenting with foot drop.     

Nerve-sparing Surgery for Deep Infiltrating Endometriosis: Laparoscopic Eradication of Deep Infiltrating Endometriosis with Rectal and Parametrial Resection According to the Negrar Method

ObjectiveTo show technical highlights of a nerve-sparing laparoscopic eradication of deep infiltrating endometriosis with rectal and parametrial resection according to the Negrar method.DesignStepwise demonstration of the technique with narrated video footage.SettingTertiary care endometriosis unit. Bowel endometriosis accounts for about 12% of the total cases of endometriosis. Most frequently, rectal infiltration also means parametrial infiltration from the widespread infiltrating disease. Its removal with inadequate anatomical surgical knowledge may lead to severe damage to visceral pelvic innervation, causing bladder, rectal, and sexual function impairments and lasting lifelong. Nerve-sparing techniques, which are the heritage of onco-gynecologic surgery, have been described to have lower post-operative bladder, rectal, and sexual dysfunctions than classical approaches.InterventionsLaparoscopic excision of deep infiltrating endometriosis was performed by following the nerve-sparing Negrar technique in 6 steps: step 0—adhesiolysis, ovarian surgery, and removal of the involved peritoneal tissues; step 1—opening of pre-sacral space, development of avascular spaces, and identification and preservation of pelvic sympathetic fibers of the inferior mesenteric plexus, superior hypogastric plexus, upper hypogastric nerves, and lumbosacral sympathetic trunk and ganglia; step 2—dissection of parametrial planes, isolation of ureteral course, lateral parametrectomy, and preservation of sympathetic fibers of postero-lateral parametrium and lower mesorectum (the lower hypogastric nerves and proximal part of the inferior hypogastric plexus or pelvic plexus); step 3—posterior parametrectomy, deep uterine vein identification, and preservation of the parasympathetic pelvic splanchnic nerves and the cranial and middle part of the mixed inferior hypogastric plexus in caudad posterior parametrium and lower mesorectal planes; step 4—preserving the caudad part of the inferior hypogastric plexus in postero-lateral parametrial ligaments; step 5—preserving the caudad part of the inferior hypogastric plexus in paravaginal planes; and step 6—rectal resection and colorectal anastomosis.ConclusionAs shown in this case, the laparoscopic nerve-sparing complete excision of endometriosis is a feasible and reproducible technique in expert hands and, as reported in the literature, offers good results in terms of bladder morbidity reduction with higher satisfaction than the classical technique.     

Cross-Sectional Survey of the Impact of Endometriosis Symptoms on Health-Related Quality of Life in Canadian Women

ObjectiveTo characterize the health-related quality of life (HRQOL) of Canadian women with a self-reported diagnosis of endometriosis (DxE).MethodsCanadian women aged 18–49 years completed a survey from December 2018 through January 2019 in which HRQOL was assessed via the 12-item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12) and Endometriosis Health Profile-30 (EHP-30) questionnaire. We used t tests to compare SF-12 scores between women with and without a self-reported DxE, as well as the severity of hallmark endometriosis symptoms, including menstrual pelvic pain/cramping, non-menstrual pelvic pain/cramping, and dyspareunia, for women with a DxE (moderate/severe vs. mild/none). The effects of overall endometriosis symptom severity on HRQOL were assessed via analysis of variance.ResultsIn total, 26 528 women without a DxE and 2004 women with a self-reported DxE were included. SF-12 scores were significantly lower for women with versus without a DxE (Mental Component Summary: 38.6 vs. 41.2; Physical Component Summary: 47.3 vs. 52.1; both P < 0.001), indicating reduced HRQOL. Moderate/severe hallmark endometriosis symptoms were associated with low SF-12 scores (i.e., worse HRQOL), with the greatest impact from non-menstrual pelvic pain/cramping. EHP-30 scores for women with a DxE ranged from 40.6 to 46.8, with the greatest impairment in self-image. Women with severe endometriosis symptoms had EHP-30 scores 1.3- and >2-fold higher (i.e., worse) than those with moderate and mild symptoms, at 67.5–74.6 versus 51.3–56.9 and 25.6–32.9, respectively.ConclusionCanadian women with a self-reported diagnosis of endometriosis had significantly impaired health-related quality of life, which was inversely correlated with endometriosis symptom severity. This finding highlights a substantial unmet need among women with endometriosis.     

Co-Existence of Uterine Myomas and Endometriosis in Women Undergoing Laparoscopic Myomectomy: Risk Factors and Surgical Implications

Study ObjectiveTo investigate the prevalence of and explore risk factors for the coexistence of uterine myomas and endometriosis and to assess operative outcomes during laparoscopic myomectomy.DesignRetrospective cohort study (Canadian Task Force classification II-2).SettingTertiary referral center in London, England.PatientsTwo hundred twelve women undergoing laparoscopic myomectomy to treat symptomatic uterine myomas.InterventionLaparoscopic myomectomy.Measurements and Main ResultsCoexisting myomas and endometriosis were identified in 21.2% of patients. Endometriosis was more common in those with subfertility (44% vs 25.7%; p = .02) and less common in those with bleeding disorders (20% vs 45%; p = .003). Parity, location of myoma, and race/ethnicity affected risk of endometriosis, whereas size and number of myomas did not. Of patients with endometriosis, 42% underwent surgical treatment of endometriosis during myomectomy. Significantly more patients with endometriosis also underwent ovarian cystectomy than did those without endometriosis (15.6% vs 3%; p = .004). Operative time was similar in both groups (109.6 minutes vs 116.4 minutes; p = .83), as was estimated blood loss (271 mL vs 327 mL; p = .16).ConclusionsA diagnosis of concomitant endometriosis should be considered, in particular in patients with subfertility and pain. This enables optimal preoperative counseling and consent for potential additional procedures such as treatment of endometriosis or ovarian cystectomy.     

Relationship between Patient Age and Disease Features in a Prospective Cohort of 1560 Women Affected by Endometriosis

ObjectiveTo assess the relationship between age, location of the disease, and surgical procedures performed in patients undergoing surgical management of endometriosis.DesignRetrospective study using data prospectively recorded in the North-West Inter Regional Female Cohort for Patients with Endometriosis database.SettingUniversity tertiary referral center.PatientsWomen who underwent surgical management of symptomatic endometriosis between April 2009 and April 2014.InterventionsPatients were allocated to 6 groups according to their age at the time of surgery: ≤20, 21 to 25, 26 to 30, 31 to 35, 36 to 40 and >40 years. Patient characteristics, prior history, location of endometriotic lesions, stage of disease, intraoperative findings, and surgical procedures were retrieved from a prospectively recorded database.Measurements and Main ResultsPatient characteristics, symptoms, location of endometriosis, and type of surgery performed were compared between groups. In total, 1560 procedures were performed. Of these, more than one-half were carried out in women between the age of 26 to 35 years and the majority were performed in women aged between 26 and 30 years. Only 2% of procedures were performed in women under the age of 20 years. The mean stage of the disease at the time of surgical diagnosis was stage II for women younger than 20 years, stage III for those in the age group of 21 to 25 years, and stage IV for those older than 26 years. The rate of diagnosis of deep colorectal nodules increased progressively from 20 to 26 years and remained stable thereafter.ConclusionOur data confirm that endometriosis is a disease that probably progresses from adolescence until the adult period when symptoms (pain or infertility) become debilitating and require surgery. Our data suggest that policies relating to the prevention and early diagnosis of endometriosis should focus on women younger than 25 years.     

The Follicular Endocrine Environment in Stimulated Cycles of Women with Endometriosis: Steroid Levels and Embryo Quality

Objective: To assess the endocrine milieu in follicles of stimulated cycles comparing women with and without endometriosis. Steroids were measured in follicular fluid (FF) and in in vitro culture of granulosa-luteal cells, and this status was related to the quality of the embryos obtained after IVF.

Design: Case-control study.

Setting: IVF program at the Instituto Valenciano de Infertilidad.

Patient(s): Twenty-four women with laparoscopically documented endometriosis and 26 controls undergoing IVF.

Intervention(s): Individual follicular aspiration, oocyte isolation, FF storage, and preparation of luteinized granulosa cells for culture; oocyte insemination and embryo cleavage in standard IVF.

Main Outcome Measure(s): Serum (day of ovum pickup) and FF measurements of estradiol, progesterone, testosterone, and androstenedione. Secretion of progesterone was measured in the cell-conditioned medium. Results were compared between patients with endometriosis and controls, as well as between oocytes that yielded embryos of different quality.

Result(s): Levels of progesterone in the FF increased with the severity of the disease, whereas testosterone accumulation in the FF decreased with the severity of the disease. An increase in progesterone accumulation in vitro was observed in basal and hCG-induced granulosa cell cultures. No difference was observed in terms of embryo quality, and no steroid marker was able to identify follicles with oocytes that displayed embryos of good or bad quality under the inverted microscope.

Conclusion(s): The data show differences in the steroidogenesis of follicles from stimulated women with and without endometriosis. These changes indicate good endocrine health but are not predictive of embryo quality.     

Transvaginal-laparoscopic Anterior Rectum Resection in a Hysterectomized Woman with Deep-infiltrating Endometriosis: Description of a Gynecologic Natural Orifice Transendoluminal Surgery Approach

Deep-infiltrating endometriosis may affect the vagina, the rectum, and the cervicoisthmic part of the uterus, resulting in severe pain, particularly dyschezia, dysmenorrhea, dyspareunia, and diminished quality of life. Advanced surgical techniques, such as laparoscopic-assisted anterior rectum resection, are recognized as safe and effective therapeutic approaches. In some cases, a laparotomy or minilaparotomy has to be performed for technical reasons. This can be avoided in some cases by transvaginal-laparoscopic low anterior rectum resection. The technique is a 4-step procedure, which can be described as follows: step 1 (vaginal) - rectovaginal examination, preparation of the rectovaginal septum, opening of the pouch of Douglas, mobilization of the endometriotic nodule and the rectum, temporary vaginal closure; step 2 (laparoscopic) - removal of additional endometriotic lesions, adhesiolysis, final mobilization of the rectum, mobilization of the rectosigmoid, endoscopic resection using an endoscopic stapler step 3 (vaginal) - transvaginal resection of the lesion, preparation of the oral anvil, closure of the vagina; and step 4 (laparoscopic) - endoscopic transanal stapler anastomosis and underwater rectoscopy, prophylaxis of adhesions, drainage. We used this procedure to treat a 46-year-old woman (gravida 2, para 2) who was admitted to our hospital for severe lower abdominal pain, constipation, dyspareunia, dyschezia, and cyclic rectal bleedings. The symptoms were caused by an endometriotic nodule accompanied by a palpable rectum stenosis. In addition, she reported a past abdominal hysterectomy with complications caused by symptomatic myomatous uterus. As a gynecologic natural orifice surgery approach, the transvaginal-laparoscopic anterior rectum resection may be an additional useful surgical technique that could be offered by surgical gynecologists to some women with deep-infiltrating endometriosis.     

Risk of Rectovaginal Fistula in Women with Excision of Deep Endometriosis Requiring Concomitant Vaginal and Rectal Sutures,with or without Preventive Stoma: A Before-and-after Comparative Study

Study ObjectiveTo assess whether a liberal policy of preventive stoma (LPS) reduces the rate of rectovaginal fistulas in women with excision of deep endometriosis requiring concomitant vaginal and rectal sutures in comparison with a more restrictive policy of preventive stoma (RPS) and to assess the risk factors for rectovaginal fistula.DesignRetrospective before-and-after comparative study.SettingTwo referral centers, one with an LPS and the other with an RPS.PatientsA total of 363 patients with deep endometriosis infiltrating the rectum and the vagina.InterventionsRectal disc excision or colorectal resection concomitantly with vaginal excision.Measurements and Main ResultsTwo hundred forty-one and 122 women received surgery at the LPS and RPS centers, respectively. The rate of preventive stomas was 71.4% at the LPS center (n = 172) and 30.3% at the RPS center (N = 37). Rectovaginal fistula was recorded in 31 cases (8.5%): nineteen women were managed at the LPS center, and 12 women underwent surgery at the RPS center. It occurred in, respectively, 9.4%, 10.8%, 10.1%, and 7% of the women managed without and with a stoma at the RPS center and of those managed without and with a stoma at the LPS center (p = .72). The height of the rectal stapled line was significantly lower in the women undergoing a stoma, particularly in those managed at the RPS center (5.4 ± 1.8 cm). Performing rectal sutures within 8 cm from the anal verge increased the risk of rectovaginal fistula more than 3-fold, independently of stoma creation, surgical procedure carried out on the rectum, size of vaginal infiltration, or associated excision of deep endometriosis involving the pelvic nerves (odds ratio 3.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.3–9.1).ConclusionNo statistically significant differences were found in terms of the risk of rectovaginal fistula between women with rectovaginal endometriosis managed by either an LPS or an RPS; however, these findings need to be confirmed by a randomized trial.     

Association between Endometriosis and Risk of Preeclampsia in Women Who Conceived Spontaneously: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

ObjectiveTo evaluate the association between endometriosis and the risk of preeclampsia and other maternal outcomes in spontaneously conceived women.Data SourcesPubMed, MEDLINE, Embase, Scopus, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were systemically searched for studies published from inception to November 2021 (CRD42020198741). Observational studies published in English or French that investigated the risk of preeclampsia in women with endometriosis who conceived spontaneously were included.Methods of Study SelectionA total of 610 articles were reviewed once duplicates were removed. Inclusion criteria included spontaneous conception and surgical and/or imaging ascertainment of an endometriosis diagnosis. Exclusion criteria included conception using assisted reproductive technologies, multiple pregnancies, chronic hypertension, and unclear diagnoses of endometriosis.Tabulation, Integration, and ResultsData of selected studies were extracted, and analysis was performed on Review Manager, version 5.4. Quality assessment of included studies for potential risk of bias was evaluated using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale for cohort studies. Three cohort studies of spontaneous pregnancies were included. Endometriosis was associated with an increased risk of preeclampsia (risk ratio [RR] = 1.47, 95% CI 1.13 -1.89, p = .003; I² = 0%; n = 3 studies). A sensitivity analysis excluding a study with adenomyosis cases yielded similar risk (RR = 1.44; 95% CI, 1.11–1.87; p = .006; I² = 0%; n = 2 studies). Having endometriosis did not significantly increase risk of cesarean delivery (RR = 1.38; 95% CI, 0.99–1.92; p = .06; I² = 80%; n = 2 studies) or postpartum hemorrhage (RR = 1.16; 95% CI, 0.46–2.91; p = .76; I² = 50%; n = 2 studies).ConclusionWe detected an increased risk of preeclampsia in women with endometriosis who conceived spontaneously. Endometriosis did not seem to increase the risk of cesarean delivery and postpartum hemorrhage, but the number of studies was limited, and the heterogeneity was high.     

Active and Passive Components of Pelvic Floor Muscle Tone in Women with Provoked Vestibulodynia: A Perspective Based on a Review of the Literature

AimPelvic floor muscle (PFM) dysfunctions, especially elevated tone or tension, are suggested to play an important role in the pathophysiology of provoked vestibulodynia (PVD). However, the involvement of the PFMs remains misunderstood as the assessment of muscle tone is complex and requires a thorough understanding of muscle physiology in relation to the characteristics and limitations of current PFM assessment tools. The aim of this review was to describe the structures and mechanisms involved in muscle tone in normally innervated muscle, and to discuss and relate these concepts to the PFM findings in women with PVD.MethodsA narrative overview of the literature retrieved from searches of electronic databases and hand searches.ResultsMuscle tone in a normally innervated muscle comprises both active (contractile) and passive (viscoelastic) components. Current methods for evaluating PFM tone such as digital palpation, ultrasound imaging, pressure perineometry, dynamometry, and electromyography may evaluate different components. Research findings suggestive of PFM hypertonicity in women with PVD include elevated general PFM tone, changes in viscoelastic properties, and at least in some women, abnormal increases in electrogenic activity.ConclusionThere is a growing body of evidence to support the involvement of PFM hypertonicity in the pathophysiology of PVD. Limitations of the instruments as well as their properties should be considered when evaluating PFM tone in order to obtain better insight into which component of PFM tone is assessed. Future research is required for further investigating the underlying mechanisms of PFM hypertonicity, and studying the specific effects of physiotherapeutic interventions on PFM tone in women with PVD.     

Experiences of Dyspareunia in Dominican Women with a History of Sexual Abuse: A Phenomenological Study

Introduction

Dyspareunia refers to painful sexual intercourse that negatively affects a person's psychological well-being and quality of life and can also have an impact on their partner, family, and social circle. The objective of this study was to understand the experiences of women with dyspareunia and a history of sexual abuse in the Dominican Republic.

Methods

This was a qualitative study based on Merleau-Ponty's hermeneutic phenomenology. Fifteen women with a diagnosis of dyspareunia and a history of sexual abuse participated. The study was carried out in Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic.

Results

In-depth interviews were conducted for data collection. Through inductive analysis using ATLAS.ti, 3 main themes were developed that represent women's experiences of dyspareunia and sexual abuse: (1) a history of sexual abuse as a background to dyspareunia, (2) living in fear in a society that revictimizes the survivor, and (3) the sexual consequences of dyspareunia.

Discussion

In some Dominican women, dyspareunia stems from their history of sexual abuse, which was unknown to their families and partners. The participants experienced dyspareunia in silence and found it difficult to seek help from health care professionals. In addition, their sexual health was marked by fear and physical pain. There are individual, cultural, and social factors that influence the occurrence of dyspareunia; a better understanding of these factors is vital for planning innovative preventive strategies that reduce the progression of sexual dysfunction and its impact on the quality of life of people with dyspareunia.