The history of congenital malformations with special reference to conjoined twins. 1. From ancient times to the 18th century

Congenital malformations are mentioned in Assyrian and Babylonian literature, and the opinions of Democritus, Empedocles and Aristotle regarding their origin persisted in modified form until the Middle Ages. Following the invention of printing, illustrations of congenital malformations began to appear on pamphlets. Although not always realistic, these illustrations provide a rich source of information regarding the spirit of those times. The first monographs containing collections and interpretations of malformations appeared in the 16th century. These were followed in the 17th century by increasingly realistic illustrations, and superstitious ideas regarding the causes of malformations, although still predominating, gradually started to recede.