Lithium-Associated Hyperparathyroidism: Surgical Strategies in the Era of Minimally Invasive Parathyroidectomy

Background  

Lithium remains an effective treatment of bipolar affective disorder. The long-term use of lithium is associated with an alteration in parathyroid function that may culminate in hyperparathyroidism. The long-term effects of lithium use are variable due to its complex effects on calcium homeostasis and bone metabolism, and as a consequence the indications for surgery remain poorly defined. The optimal surgical strategy for lithium-associated hyperparathyroidism in the era of minimally invasive surgery is also the subject of debate. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the variable findings of lithium-associated parathyroid disease.