黄芪甲苷调节PI3K/Akt/FoxO1通路抑制糖尿病大鼠肝糖异生

目的:探讨黄芪甲苷对2型糖尿病(T2DM)大鼠肝损伤保护潜在机制及肝组织磷酯酰肌醇3-激酶(PI3K)/蛋白激酶B(Akt)/叉头框转录因子1(FoxO1),磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧基酶(PEPCK)和葡萄糖6-磷酸酶(G6Pase)蛋白表达的影响。方法:6周高糖高脂饮食后,链脲佐菌素(STZ)一次性腹腔注射(0.035 g·kg^-1)建立T2DM大鼠模型,随机分为正常组、模型组、黄芪甲苷低、中、高剂量组及二甲双胍组。黄芪甲苷低、中、高剂量组灌胃黄芪甲苷0.02,0.04,0.08 g·kg^-1·d^-1,二甲双胍组灌胃二甲双胍0.2 g·kg^-1·d^-1;给药8周后,于末次灌胃24 h禁食不禁水后处死,测血清肝生化指标,肝脏指数等;采用苏木素-伊红(HE)染色观察肝脏组织病理形态学变化;马松(Masson)染色观察纤维化程度;过碘酸希夫(PAS)染色反应观察细胞内糖原等变化;免疫组化及蛋白免疫印迹法(Western blot)检测各组肝中PI3K/Akt/FoxO1信号蛋白及PEPCK,G6Pase蛋白表达水平。结果:与正常组比较,模型组肝脏指数显著升高(P<0.01),肝功能指标丙氨酸氨基转移酶(ALT),天门冬氨酸氨基转移酶(AST),总胆固醇(TC),甘油三酯(TG)的含量显著升高(P<0.01),高密度脂蛋白胆固醇(HDL-C)显著降低(P<0.01),大鼠体质量显著减轻(P<0.01),PI3K/Akt/Fox O1信号减弱(P<0.01),PEPCK,G6Pase蛋白表达水平显著增强(P<0.01);与模型组比较,黄芪甲苷中、高剂量组及二甲双胍组肝功能指标ALT,AST,TC,TG的含量明显降低(P<0.05,P<0.01),大鼠体质量明显增加(P<0.05,P<0.01),肝组织Fox O1,PEPCK及G6Pase蛋白水平明显降低(P<0.05,P<0.01),Fox O1的磷酸化水平明显增强(P<0.05,P<0.01)。结论:黄芪甲苷可能通过调节PI3K/Akt/Fox O1信号通路抑制高脂高糖加小剂量STZ诱导T2DM肝糖异生,从而起到延缓T2DM大鼠肝脏损伤作用。     

Adrenocortical hormones

The adrenal glands lie on top of the kidneys. The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines and the adrenal cortex produces three types of steroid hormone (mineralocorticoids (aldosterone), glucocorticoids (cortisol) and androgens (dehydroepiandrosterone, DHEA)). All are synthesized from cholesterol. Cortisol secretion is controlled by adrenocorticotrophic hormone from the pituitary. It rises in response to stress and is essential for life. It stimulates gluconeogenesis, breaking down lean tissue, and is anti-inflammatory. Aldosterone secretion is controlled by angiotensin II and extracellular potassium concentrations, so is influenced by renal perfusion. It provides the fine tuning for sodium and potassium, and thus water balance via its action on the distal renal tubule. DHEA is a weak androgen. In the male it is unimportant; in the female DHEA produced by the adrenal gland accounts for most of the androgen in the blood.     

Normalization of enhanced hepatic gluconeogenesis by the antiglucocorticoid RU 38486 in acutely uraemic rats

Hepatic amino acid uptake, urea and glucose production are increased in acute uraemia. It has been shown that this metabolic pattern is mediated by glucocorticoids. Accordingly, the administration of the antiglucocorticoid RU 38486 to acutely uraemic rats resulted in a reduction of serum urea-N and glucose levels. To clarify whether this effect is due to a reduction in hepatic gluconeogenesis we examined the effect of the antiglucocorticoid RU 38486 on urea and glucose formation in isolated hepatocytes from sham-operated (SHAM) and bilaterally nephrectomized (BNX) rats receiving RU 38486 or the vehicle only. Hepatic glucose production in BNX rats was considerably increased from Na-pyruvate (+79%), alanine (+174%), glutamine (+158%), and serine (+87%) compared with SHAM animals. Concomitantly, hepatic urea formation was also enhanced from amino acid substrates in acutely uraemic rats. When uraemic animals were treated with RU 38486, glucose production from amino acids and Na-pyruvate was reduced to the range of SHAM animals or even lower. This effect could not be demonstrated in SHAM-operated controls. A comparable decrement in hepatic urea production was observed in BNX rats treated with the antiglucocorticoid. Thus, glucocorticoids appear to play a key role in the abnormal hepatic urea and glucose production of acutely uraemic rats.     

Amino acids and lipoproteins in plasma of duodenopancreatectomized patients: effects of glucagon in physiological amounts

Duodenopancreatectomy induces a severe glucagon deficiency and elevated plasma concentrations of alanine, aspartate, glycine, proline, serine, arginine, citrulline, ornithine, phenylalanine and tyrosine. Restoring high physiological plasma glucagon in six such patients by infusing 0.3 mg/24 h of exogenous glucagon reduced significantly (P less than 0.01 or 0.001) the mentioned amino acids (except phenylalanine) and further asparagine, glutamine, methionine and threonine. In six normal subjects the same infusion reduced significantly (P less than 0.05 to 0.001) plasma alanine, asparagine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, threonine, arginine, ornithine, lysine and tyrosine. However, the effect was significantly (P less than 0.01 or 0.001) less marked for alanine, glutamine, glycine, methionine, serine, threonine and arginine. This particular glucagon sensitivity of duodenopancreatectomized patients suggests that glucagon deficiency is the cause of their hyperaminacidaemia. By contrast, lipoprotein concentrations were virtually unaffected by either glucagon deficiency or its replacement. In the light of the marked hypoaminacidaemia in glucagonoma patients these results attribute to glucagon a major role as a regulator of protein metabolism.     

Renal glucose production and utilization: new aspects in humans

Summary According to current textbook wisdom the liver is the exclusive site of glucose production in humans in the postabsorptive state. Although many animal and in vitro data have documented that the kidney is capable of gluconeogenesis, production of glucose by the human kidney in the postabsorptive state has generally been regarded as negligible. This traditional view is based on net balance measurements which, other than after a prolonged fast or during metabolic acidosis, showed no significant net renal glucose release. However, recent studies have refuted this view by combining isotopic and balance techniques, which have demonstrated that renal glucose production accounts for 25 % of systemic glucose production. Moreover, these studies indicate that glucose production by the human kidney is stimulated by epinephrine, inhibited by insulin and is excessive in diabetes mellitus. Since renal glucose release is largely, if not exclusively, due to gluconeogenesis, it is likely that the kidney is as important a gluconeogenic organ as the liver. The most important renal gluconeogenic precursors appear to be lactate, glutamine and glycerol. The implications of these recent findings on the understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of human glucose metabolism are discussed. [Diabetologia (1997) 40: 749–757].     

Lipid-dependent control of hepatic glycogen stores in healthy humans

Aims/hypothesis. Non-esterified fatty acids and glycerol could stimulate gluconeogenesis and also contribute to regulating hepatic glycogen stores. We examined their effect on liver glycogen breakdown in humans.¶Methods. After an overnight fast healthy subjects participated in three protocols with lipid/heparin (plasma non-esterified fatty acids: 2.2 ± 0.1 mol/l; plasma glycerol: 0.5 ± 0.03 mol/l; n = 7), glycerol (0.4 ± 0.1 mol/l; 1.5 ± 0.2 mol/l; n = 5) and saline infusion (control; 0.5 ± 0.1 mol/l; 0.2 ± 0.02 mol/l; n = 7). Net rates of glycogen breakdown were calculated from the decrease of liver glycogen within 9 h using ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Endogenous glucose production was measured with infusion of D-[6,6-²H₂]glucose.¶Results. Endogenous glucose production decreased by about 25 % during lipid and saline infusion (p < 0.005) but not during glycerol infusion (p < 0.001 vs lipid, saline). An increase of plasma non-esterified fatty acids or glycerol reduced the net glycogen breakdown by about 84 % to 0.6 ± 0.3 μmol · kg^–1· min^–1 (p < 0.001 vs saline: 3.7 ± 0.5 μmol · kg^–1· min^–1) and by about 46 % to 2.0 ± 0.4 μmol · kg^–1· min^–1 (p < 0.01 vs saline and lipid), respectively. Rates of gluconeogenesis increased to 11.5 ± 0.8 μmol · kg^–1· min^–1 (p < 0.01) and 12.8 ± 1.0 μmol · kg^–1· min^–1 (p < 0.01 vs saline: 8.2 ± 0.7 μmol · l^–1· min^–1), respectively.¶Conclusion/interpretation: An increase of non-esterified fatty acid leads to a pronounced inhibition of net hepatic glycogen breakdown and increases gluconeogenesis whereas glucose production does not differ from the control condition. We suggest that this effect is not due to increased availability of glycerol alone but rather to lipid-dependent control of hepatic glycogen stores. [Diabetologia (2001) 44: 48–54]     

Vasoactive intestinal peptide is a local mediator in a gut‐brain neural axis activating intestinal gluconeogenesis

Intestinal gluconeogenesis (IGN) promotes metabolic benefits through activation of a gut‐brain neural axis. However, the local mediator activating gluconeogenic genes in the enterocytes remains unknown. We show that (i) vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) signaling through VPAC1 receptor activates the intestinal glucose‐6‐phosphatase gene in vivo, (ii) the activation of IGN by propionate is counteracted by VPAC1 antagonism, and (iii) VIP‐positive intrinsic neurons in the submucosal plexus are increased under the action of propionate. These data support the role of VIP as a local neuromodulator released by intrinsic enteric neurons and responsible for the induction of IGN through a VPAC1 receptor‐dependent mechanism in enterocytes.     

Effects of exogenous hormones and glucose on plasma levels and hepatic metabolism of amino acids in the fetus and in the newborn rat

Summary The present study examines the role of insulin, glucagon and cortisol in the regulation of gluconeogenesis from lactate and amino acids in fetal and newborn rats. Injection of glucagon in the fullterm fetal rat caused a rise in glucose (and insulin) and a fall in blood levels of most individual amino acids, stimulated hepatic accumulation of ¹⁴C-amino isobutyric acid and ¹⁴C-cycloleucine and increased the conversion of ¹⁴C lactate, alanine and serine to glucose in vivo and in vitro (liver slices). Such changes were equivalent to the changes seen in 4 h old newborn rats. When glucagon was administered at birth, little difference was observed between control and treated animals in plasma amino acids and a smaller increment in conversion of ¹⁴C substrate to glucose occurred. By contrast, insulin injection at birth caused hypoglycemia, suppression of levels of certain amino acids and inhibition of conversion of ¹⁴C substrates into glucose. Glucose injection at birth caused elevated glycemia and plasma insulin and suppression of most amino acid levels and of conversion of ¹⁴C substrate into glucose. Cortisol injection at birth caused a marked, generalized hyperaminoacidemia, a stimulation of glucagon secretion and of conversion of ¹⁴C substrates into glucose. These observations support the thesis that glucagon plays a major role in the induction of hepatic gluconeogenesis and that insulin acts as an antagonist hormone.     

A differential action of phenformin in normal and diabetic rat livers

Summary Phenformin inhibited gluconeogenesis by livers from both normal and diabetic rats. However, the concentration of phenformin which inhibited gluconeogenesis by the diabetic livers was not effective in normal livers. It is suggested that an action which is differentially effective in the diabetic state is likely to be clinically relevant.